The research subject of this thesis is the Continuity of Christianity in Jordan during the rise of the Islam. Christianity itself has a long and complex history in Jordan that can be dated back to...Show moreThe research subject of this thesis is the Continuity of Christianity in Jordan during the rise of the Islam. Christianity itself has a long and complex history in Jordan that can be dated back to the early days of the religion. The subject of this thesis is based on an excavation of a church in Udhruh (Jordan) that was converted into a mosque; the church showed signs of being in longer Christian use during the Muslim reign. This inspirited the will to research Christianity and its continuity in Jordan because of the assumption that Christianity disappeared or stopped when the Islamic reign begun. The purpose of this research was to provide future researchers with a clear story about this transition and providing certain products than can be used for further research. The products that resulted from this research are: a database that consists of information about the churches, multiple spreading maps consisting of all the collected churches, a spreading map consisting of the churches that stayed in use after 630/640 AD, a spreading map that consists of the churches converted into mosques, a spreading map that shows the ‘stayed in use’ churches and the converted churches combined, a table that consists of the collected bishops and a table that consists of the collected monasteries. The results and information about the research goal were retrieved during an extensive literature research. Before starting this research the amount of 7 research questions were formulated: 1. How many churches were present in Jordan before the Islamic reign? 2. How many churches were present in Jordan during the Islamic reign? 3. How did the organizational structure of Christianity develop during the emergence of the Islam? 4. How is it noticeable that a church is converted into a mosque? 5. Which churches in Jordan show signs of being converted into mosques? 6. Which churches in Jordan have been partly used as monasteries? 7. What kind of archaeological remains are proof of the conversion of churches into mosques? The 7 research questions were used as handles in answering the main question: What is the continuity of Christianity in Jordan during the rise of the Islam? During this research 173 churches were collected and researched. The number of 100-165 churches were present before the start of the Islamic reign and the amount of 33 churches were present in Jordan during the Islamic reign. This can indicate that the amount and therefore use of churches did decline during the rise of the Islam. In addition to that seven churches were discovered that showed signs of being converted into a mosque by closing of the apse and/or installing a mihrab (a nice in the wall that shows which way to face during prayer). In the early stages of the research several bishops were collected during the literature study, the amount of 10 bishops were counted in Jordan. When researching the location that the bishops were seated, the information could be used as additional proof for an interesting statement that Udhruh became the new capital of Jordan and Petra became a place of exile. The time of the end of bishopric can also be suggested of being during the time of the rise of the Islam, this is because the seat of the bishop moved to Udhruh and when the church of Udhruh became converted into a mosque it can be suggested that the bishopric also ended there. Furthermore, none of the churches that were collected during the early stage of the research were partly used as monasteries, the monasteries that were found during the research all showed signs of being a separate building from the churches. Some information that was gathered during the research does suggest that Christianity did end or declined very rapidly when the Islam started to rise; the decline in churches, the end of bishopric and the converting of churches into mosques can be seen as ‘proof’. However, the opposite can also be suggested when taking into account the signs that Christianity was still practised during the rise of the Islam; several Christian texts were found at the church in Udhruh that indicate this, new churches were built and 33 churches stayed in use. Together with the statements of several researchers that Christianity continued and even throve during the Islamic rise and the suggestion by for example an inscription that marks a renovation of a church during the Muslim rule, according to researchers it appeared that Christians and Muslims lived peacefully, side by side during the rise of the Islam in the country of Jordan. The results could spark a discussion, this is because the results are based on several English literature sources and only one French source however the native tongue of Jordanians is Arabic and French. More of these publications have not been taking into consideration because of the fact that it was hard to find because the titles of these publications would have been in those two languages and therefore, not that easy to find when these are not languages that are mastered. Furthermore, when these publications would have been found there also would have been a need to find a translator that could help with decipher of the contests of these publications. In addition to the previous statement it could also be discussed if the result that was given during this research can be seen as a final result for the overall subject. This can be argued because the subject is broad and consists of researching a whole country, this takes time. The recommendation is to research this subject in further extent and to perceive the result that was given in this document as a start in answering this big and complex subject.Show less
Every year, Morocco sends hundreds of imams to different countries in Europe during Ramadan to support the local Moroccan community. They are sent by the Foundation Hassan II, a foundation...Show moreEvery year, Morocco sends hundreds of imams to different countries in Europe during Ramadan to support the local Moroccan community. They are sent by the Foundation Hassan II, a foundation safeguarding the cultural and religious identity of the diaspora. This research focuses on this institution and examines the ways in which religion is manifested in foreign policy in relation to the diaspora in the Netherlands. This is done by analyzing a national policy called the Stratégie Nationale en faveur des Marocains du Monde by the Ministère chargé des Marocains Résidant à l’Etranger et des Affaires de la Migration. In the case of the Netherlands, religion is mainly manifested by sending religious personnel and materials. In general, Morocco emphasizes a return transnationalism within its policy by motivating contributing to the country’s development, but also return to Morocco. This return transnationalism was first visible in the terminology that Morocco used to refer to the migrants which were underlinging the economic purposes of the migration. This later evolved into a term that also emphasized cultural and religious elements. Furthermore, various institutions were found to represent the interests of the diaspora, including the Fondation, but this system is not flawless because their cooperation can be ineffective. The study also covers the invention of “Moroccan Islam” as a colonial construct and the Moroccan interpretation of Islam that consist of four pillars. These pillars are also visible in the Strategy for example by emphasizing the Maliki Madhhab or moderate nature of the Moroccan interpretation of Islam.Show less
This thesis compares two novels in their portrayal of Muslimas. The two novels that are discussed are Salman Rushdie's The Satanic Verses and Nadeem Aslam's Maps for Lost Lovers. The thesis argues...Show moreThis thesis compares two novels in their portrayal of Muslimas. The two novels that are discussed are Salman Rushdie's The Satanic Verses and Nadeem Aslam's Maps for Lost Lovers. The thesis argues that Rushdie applies inaccurate representations of Islam and Muslimas in his novel. Moreover, his novel misuses Ayesha's historical figure and feminizes several different aspects of the religion. It concludes that Rushdie often writes about women, but never from the perspective of these women. Aslam's novel, on the other hand, allocates a lot more time to the female characters and their perspectives. However, it must also be noted that Aslam's portrayal of Islam - and along with that, Muslimas - is heavily Pakistani-oriented, in its most conservative form. Lastly, evident similarities and differences between the two novels were discussed. Here, the thesis concludes that both novels brought about a similar societal effect - namely heightening feelings of Islamophobia -, despite their different approaches to the subject.Show less
In 2009 during the excavation of Udhruh, a Byzantine church in southern Jordan, an ensemble of fifteen limestone blocks were found, out of situ. They featured symbols, which have yet to be...Show moreIn 2009 during the excavation of Udhruh, a Byzantine church in southern Jordan, an ensemble of fifteen limestone blocks were found, out of situ. They featured symbols, which have yet to be researched. It is important to pin-point the original locations of the blocks as this will enlarge our understanding of the church and because the location of the blocks could also assist in understanding the engraved symbols, which could be other than Christian in nature. The church and attached town maintained an autonomous Christian community while being controlled by multiple Islamic powers for at least six centuries. This raises questions relating to the presupposed tenuous Muslim-Christian relations in the region. The Levant and Middle East as a whole have long been described as historically unstable as a result of religious tension, but the existence of the church provides a counterargument against this notion. The pin-pointing of the location of the blocks has been done through 3D-analysis, in which the surface condition, the orientation and the curvature of the blocks were determined. The symbols have been analysed by method of 3D analysis and a literature study, focussing on early Christian symbolism. The research concludes that the blocks are divided into a more homogeneous group, the “true” blocks, and three miscellaneous blocks. The true blocks have similar dimensions and attributes. Analysis points to an elevated, semi-suspended original location within a straight wall, probably in the aisles or nave of the core basilica, which is the oldest part of the church. Another object displayed clear curvature and was determined to be part of an archway. The symbols on the blocks are without a doubt Christian in nature, but not all early Christian. The geometrical pattern have been determined to likely be decorative, instead of symbolic. Whereas the shell and the crosses hold symbolic meaning. Out of the three types of crosses, two are also linked to the Crusader period. This could provide evidence for the continued use of the church during the Abbasid, Fatimid and Ayyubid periods, an epoch of which still not much is known concerning Udhruh.Show less
Rising numbers of religious extremism are an increasing concern in Western Europe. As Western Europe is secular, and secular ideology seeks to diminish the influence of religion on society, this...Show moreRising numbers of religious extremism are an increasing concern in Western Europe. As Western Europe is secular, and secular ideology seeks to diminish the influence of religion on society, this rise is peculiar. It raises the question why religious extremism is on the rise in Western Europe despite its secular environment. Evidence suggests there is a causal link between religious extremism and secularism. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to investigate such a causal relation between secularism and religious extremism in Western Europe. To rule out other explanations, this study identified two rival explanations: A cultural disconnect and geopolitical factors. The validity of all three explanations was tested through a case study analysis of France, the Netherlands and Belgium. The results concluded that the cultural disconnect and the geopolitical explanation are not correct. However, the study concluded that certain forms of secularism lead to a rise of religious extremism in Western Europe. The cases demonstrate the mechanism behind this: States enforce disproportionately strict secular policies through a strict separation between the public sphere and the private sphere, and a positive bias towards the pre-existing dominant religion. These two factors trigger reactive religiosity, leading to religious extremism. Conclusively, disproportionate secularism plays a pivotal role in the rise of religious extremism in Western Europe.Show less
In order to add to the academic and societal debate on Salafism, this thesis will approach the topic of Salafism in the Netherlands from both a philosophical and a political perspective through the...Show moreIn order to add to the academic and societal debate on Salafism, this thesis will approach the topic of Salafism in the Netherlands from both a philosophical and a political perspective through the question “To what extent are Salafi’s rejecting Dutch Enlightenment ideals and does this weaken these ideals in society?”. Instead of focusing on the possible jihadi/terrorist threat Salafism might pose, like most previous research on European Salafism, the stances of Salafi’s on Dutch society will be analysed, and what effect this has on society. This will be done through researching the representation of Enlightenment values in Dutch political manifesto’s before and after the rise of Salafism in the Netherlands.. The thesis concludes that Salafism is a largely diverse group which rejects Enlightenment values to various degrees. Furthermore it concludes that Salafism has strengthened these Enlightenment ideals in the Netherlands, as the political manifesto’s represent Enlightenment values in a much stronger manner after the rise of Dutch Salafism.Show less
Although the USSR often claimed to promote equality in relations with other peoples, this has frequently been shown to be untrue. Specifically, in the case of the USSR's relationship with the...Show moreAlthough the USSR often claimed to promote equality in relations with other peoples, this has frequently been shown to be untrue. Specifically, in the case of the USSR's relationship with the Caucasus through the use of Orientalist tropes. So, using Edward Said's theoretical framework of Orientalism, the question "How have constructions of Orientalist discourses of the Caucasus changed from the Soviet Union to the Russian Federation?" was investigated in the context of Leonid Gaidai's 1967 film "Kidnapping, Caucasian Style" and Alexei Uchitel's 2008 film "Captive". These constructions have primarily changed along 5 Orientalist tropes. First, tropes of 'backwardness' have remained, though they have shifted from a focus on lack of modern technologies and customs to tropes of either a disorganized band of people in some cases or a militant and violent group in others. Second, representations of alcoholism, as a means of showing a lack of faith in Islam as well as an overly textual approach to understanding it, have remained largely unchanged over time. Third, portrayals of the Caucasus as a feminized "Other" have changed over time. Although feminine aspects have remained as justifying Soviet and Russian intervention in the region. Fourth, the exotic aspect of the Caucasus, though very present in Soviet portrayals, has largely faded from Russian Orientalist representations. Finally, Soviet and, especially, Russian Orientalism portray the Caucasus as being in a state of nature, as a wild and mysterious land that is inherently hostile to Russians. Thus, although constructions of Orientalist discourse have changed in some aspects and remained similar in others, their use as a means of justifying Soviet and Russian presence remains strongly similar and Orientalist.Show less
The Chinese war on Uyghur terrorism is often condemned for its human rights abuses, however, this ignores the Chinese view on the issue. The conflict between the Uyghurs and the Chinese reaches far...Show moreThe Chinese war on Uyghur terrorism is often condemned for its human rights abuses, however, this ignores the Chinese view on the issue. The conflict between the Uyghurs and the Chinese reaches far into the shared history, but it has accelerated after the events of 9/11 which created a new discourse on terrorism in China. This study aims to create a better understanding of the conflict by researching the conflict as objectively as possible. The question that will guide this thesis is: To what extent does the Chinese definition of terrorism and the perceived threat of the Uyghurs align with the counterterror measures taken in comparison to counterterror measures employed by a number of Western nations? To answer the question, the Chinese definition of terrorism has been compared to an academic definition, along with a research on the Uyghur threat, and an analysis of the counterterror measures of China in comparison to the Netherlands and France. While the Chinese definitions is too broad, Uyghur terrorist organizations do form a threat, and the Chinese counterterror measures are not too different from France due to the securitization process, both countries have gone through. The thesis concludes that counterterror measures are valid in the light of the perceived threat due to the issue being securitized.Show less
In 2009, it is estimated that the Muslim population in Egypt reached 78,51 million, or 94.6% of Egyptians is Muslim (Scott & Jafari 2010, 6). Islam influence created a unique case for Egypt as...Show moreIn 2009, it is estimated that the Muslim population in Egypt reached 78,51 million, or 94.6% of Egyptians is Muslim (Scott & Jafari 2010, 6). Islam influence created a unique case for Egypt as a developing country. From the period of the 1950s until 2000s, there have been multiple attempts to apply different economic reforms in Egypt. However, the reforms also affected the concept of Islamic revival in the context of setting the guidelines to practice business. This thesis focuses on the implication of neoliberalism concept, especially in terms of wealth accumulation from the year 1970s. Arguably, neoliberalism also shaped the Islamic practice into the notion of ‘pious neoliberalism’ in Egypt. The phenomenon of ‘pious neoliberalism’ will be analyzed through the emergence of the Islamic Banking and Finance (IBF) and the halal food industry in Egypt and the practicality of it. The research concludes that there is a new phenomenon of Islamization that is distinct from the predecessors by embracing the idea of neoliberalism and capitalism. The research, thus, explores how this new phenomenon of Islamization, shaped by pious neoliberalism, is distinct from the predecessors by embracing the idea of neoliberalism and capitalism.Show less
The September 11 attacks of 2001, alongside the bombings in Madrid in 2004 and London in 2005, are just some examples of terrorism that have been carried out in the name of Islam. These events have...Show moreThe September 11 attacks of 2001, alongside the bombings in Madrid in 2004 and London in 2005, are just some examples of terrorism that have been carried out in the name of Islam. These events have been heavily discussed and debated not only in the West, but globally regarding the use of Islam in committing terrorism. Hence, different scholars have touched upon the concept of Salafism in relation to modern-day terrorism but did not bring enough attention to how it has multiple uses in politics. This research sheds light on the methods of two very distinct political actors which were able to create social cohesion, attract followers and maintain a collective identity within their societies. Therefore, this research investigates how both the Islamic State and Saudi Arabia have used Islam as part of their propaganda strategy online to achieve political outcomes.Show less
The thesis researches the potential of a separate jihadi strategy domain within the field of Strategic Studies. The thesis examines three case studies; Hezbollah, Hamas and Al Qaeda. These case...Show moreThe thesis researches the potential of a separate jihadi strategy domain within the field of Strategic Studies. The thesis examines three case studies; Hezbollah, Hamas and Al Qaeda. These case studies are compared on three separate elements of strategy; the ends, ways and means. The thesis concludes that these jihadi organizations lend certain aspects of Western strategic scholars and applied them to their own practices. Thus, it can be said that a separate field of jihadi strategic studies can be useful and relevant to strategic studies. Additionally, the analysis shows that jihadi organizations do think strategically when it comes to obtaining their objectives, and that they borrow elements from other jihadi organizations and Western strategic studies. This seems to suggest that no real ‘Western’ or ‘Islamic’ Way of War exists, but rather that strategic thinking is influenced by cultural heritage and the cultures that it comes into contact with.Show less
Europe recently played victim to various acts of Islamic terrorism. Multiple attacks on different targets put European countries in fear for more attacks, making some Europeans anxious about the...Show moreEurope recently played victim to various acts of Islamic terrorism. Multiple attacks on different targets put European countries in fear for more attacks, making some Europeans anxious about the flow of refugees coming to Europe. However, most terrorist appear to be 2nd or 3rd generation migrants, making Europe’s terrorist threat mostly an home grown issue. This article tries to broaden the knowledge about home-grown radicalization in Europe by analyzing the root causes of radicalization as they are present in society, and by comparing the Dutch and Belgian society subsequently.Show less
