The research subject of this thesis is the Continuity of Christianity in Jordan during the rise of the Islam. Christianity itself has a long and complex history in Jordan that can be dated back to...Show moreThe research subject of this thesis is the Continuity of Christianity in Jordan during the rise of the Islam. Christianity itself has a long and complex history in Jordan that can be dated back to the early days of the religion. The subject of this thesis is based on an excavation of a church in Udhruh (Jordan) that was converted into a mosque; the church showed signs of being in longer Christian use during the Muslim reign. This inspirited the will to research Christianity and its continuity in Jordan because of the assumption that Christianity disappeared or stopped when the Islamic reign begun. The purpose of this research was to provide future researchers with a clear story about this transition and providing certain products than can be used for further research. The products that resulted from this research are: a database that consists of information about the churches, multiple spreading maps consisting of all the collected churches, a spreading map consisting of the churches that stayed in use after 630/640 AD, a spreading map that consists of the churches converted into mosques, a spreading map that shows the ‘stayed in use’ churches and the converted churches combined, a table that consists of the collected bishops and a table that consists of the collected monasteries. The results and information about the research goal were retrieved during an extensive literature research. Before starting this research the amount of 7 research questions were formulated: 1. How many churches were present in Jordan before the Islamic reign? 2. How many churches were present in Jordan during the Islamic reign? 3. How did the organizational structure of Christianity develop during the emergence of the Islam? 4. How is it noticeable that a church is converted into a mosque? 5. Which churches in Jordan show signs of being converted into mosques? 6. Which churches in Jordan have been partly used as monasteries? 7. What kind of archaeological remains are proof of the conversion of churches into mosques? The 7 research questions were used as handles in answering the main question: What is the continuity of Christianity in Jordan during the rise of the Islam? During this research 173 churches were collected and researched. The number of 100-165 churches were present before the start of the Islamic reign and the amount of 33 churches were present in Jordan during the Islamic reign. This can indicate that the amount and therefore use of churches did decline during the rise of the Islam. In addition to that seven churches were discovered that showed signs of being converted into a mosque by closing of the apse and/or installing a mihrab (a nice in the wall that shows which way to face during prayer). In the early stages of the research several bishops were collected during the literature study, the amount of 10 bishops were counted in Jordan. When researching the location that the bishops were seated, the information could be used as additional proof for an interesting statement that Udhruh became the new capital of Jordan and Petra became a place of exile. The time of the end of bishopric can also be suggested of being during the time of the rise of the Islam, this is because the seat of the bishop moved to Udhruh and when the church of Udhruh became converted into a mosque it can be suggested that the bishopric also ended there. Furthermore, none of the churches that were collected during the early stage of the research were partly used as monasteries, the monasteries that were found during the research all showed signs of being a separate building from the churches. Some information that was gathered during the research does suggest that Christianity did end or declined very rapidly when the Islam started to rise; the decline in churches, the end of bishopric and the converting of churches into mosques can be seen as ‘proof’. However, the opposite can also be suggested when taking into account the signs that Christianity was still practised during the rise of the Islam; several Christian texts were found at the church in Udhruh that indicate this, new churches were built and 33 churches stayed in use. Together with the statements of several researchers that Christianity continued and even throve during the Islamic rise and the suggestion by for example an inscription that marks a renovation of a church during the Muslim rule, according to researchers it appeared that Christians and Muslims lived peacefully, side by side during the rise of the Islam in the country of Jordan. The results could spark a discussion, this is because the results are based on several English literature sources and only one French source however the native tongue of Jordanians is Arabic and French. More of these publications have not been taking into consideration because of the fact that it was hard to find because the titles of these publications would have been in those two languages and therefore, not that easy to find when these are not languages that are mastered. Furthermore, when these publications would have been found there also would have been a need to find a translator that could help with decipher of the contests of these publications. In addition to the previous statement it could also be discussed if the result that was given during this research can be seen as a final result for the overall subject. This can be argued because the subject is broad and consists of researching a whole country, this takes time. The recommendation is to research this subject in further extent and to perceive the result that was given in this document as a start in answering this big and complex subject.Show less
This research seeks to analyze the current hydropolitical relationship between Israel and Jordan in the light of the Declaration of Intent, agreed upon in November 2021. The agreement entails a...Show moreThis research seeks to analyze the current hydropolitical relationship between Israel and Jordan in the light of the Declaration of Intent, agreed upon in November 2021. The agreement entails a collaboration between the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, the State of Israel and the United Arab Emirates on water and energy issues. While the literature on hydropolitics has mainly focused on the connection between water scarcity on the one hand, and conflict or cooperation, on the other, this study moves beyond this dichotomy by applying a mixed method of environmental peacebuilding and hydro-hegemony to the case-study. Built on theoretical analysis and including historical aspects, the international, regional and domestic context as well as the concept of asymmetrical power and discursive power, the research looks beyond elite interests and traditional theories of international relations. While the analysis identifies the envisaged cooperation from the water-for-energy deal as a form of technical environmental cooperation, the findings also stress the ambiguity in Jordan’s behavior and the underlying dynamics of power asymmetry, reinforced by the role of external actors and the use of dominant discourses.Show less
This thesis investigates the processes of repression and exclusion of the Palestinian refugee in the Arab host-state. A theoretical framework using theories from Michel Foucault, Hannah Arendt,...Show moreThis thesis investigates the processes of repression and exclusion of the Palestinian refugee in the Arab host-state. A theoretical framework using theories from Michel Foucault, Hannah Arendt, Giorgio Agamben, Michael Hardt, and Antonio Negri, is used to analyse the situation of the refugee in the three case studies of Lebanon, Syria, and Jordan. It is argued that biopolitics are employed to control and exclude the Palestinian refugee. The host-state excuses this exclusion through the retoric of the incommensurability of the right of return to Palestine with citizenship of the host-state. Gaining citizenship of the host-state supposedly cancels the right of return to Palestine. This discourse is a tool that is employed by the host-states when he refugee proses a threat to their status quo. This thesis disagrees with this supposed incommensurability argueing that the two can co-exist. Furthermore, an analysis of the situation of the Palestinian refugee in the case studies leads to the conclusion that Hannah Arendt and Giorgio Agamben were right when argueing that the nation-state is the only institution capable of upholding human rights and that without citizenship the refugee is vulnerable and without protection. Because of this, serious steps need to be taken towards citizenship for the Palestinian refugee.Show less
Master thesis | Crisis and Security Management (MSc)
open access
Freshwater is an essential yet scarce good, that is predicted to only become scarcer because of climate change and growing populations. In addition, freshwater in rivers is often shared between...Show moreFreshwater is an essential yet scarce good, that is predicted to only become scarcer because of climate change and growing populations. In addition, freshwater in rivers is often shared between multiple countries. Despite multiple predictions by scholars and experts, states often do not go to war over freshwater. Instead, most disputes end in the signing of a treaty. However, these treaties are not always fair and do not, actually, always end conflict. In the view of this research, treaties are merely a way in which states fight, without using violence, and should thus be seen as a part of ongoing conflict, rather than the end of it. In addition, despite theoretical predictions, international organisations do not play a large role in the creation of River Basin Organisations and neither do hydrohegemons.Show less
British interests in the Middle East have consistently been upheld through diplomatic means. Originally colonial, expansionist and imperial in manner, contemporary diplomatic interests in the...Show moreBritish interests in the Middle East have consistently been upheld through diplomatic means. Originally colonial, expansionist and imperial in manner, contemporary diplomatic interests in the region are labelled as bilateral, and moving away from the traditionally colonial, imperial and Orientalist discourse first established with British interest in the region. This thesis examines British diplomatic attitudes towards the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, investigating the language from the mid-twentieth century to the early twenty-first in order to highlight and explain the subtleties of colonial and Orientalist mentality still noticeable in contemporary British diplomacy towards the country, and indeed, reflective of the wider MENA region. Show less
The overwhelming majority of the more than five and a half million Syrians have fled to neighboring countries in the Middle East without their civil documents. Particularly in a refugee context, it...Show moreThe overwhelming majority of the more than five and a half million Syrians have fled to neighboring countries in the Middle East without their civil documents. Particularly in a refugee context, it is crucial for the standard of living for Syrian refugees and eventual return to Syria to be adequately documented. Complex civil registration systems in the host countries, however, often prevent Syrian refugees from obtaining civil documentation, thereby expanding the problem of the lack and loss of civil documentation of Syrian refugees. This thesis examines the different civil registration systems and their consequences for Syrian refugees in Jordan, Turkey, and Lebanon through an in-depth analysis focusing on legal status, marriage and birth registration. This thesis argues that the difference in implemented civil registration systems is determined by each host country’s social, political, and economic situation before and during the Syrian refugee influx and the extent to which the Syrian refugees have impacted the country, positively and negatively. In Turkey, the government has adopted a temporary protection regime, which includes refugee-sensitive civil registration systems. However, in Lebanon and to a lesser extent Jordan, Syrian refugees are still facing many challenges trying to obtain civil documentation due to the complex civil registration systems. As the eight years of hosting refugees has turned out more harmful than beneficial for the host countries, discussions on the return of Syrian refugees has increasingly become louder. However, a lot of change is still required to ensure that Syrian refugees are adequately documented.Show less
The aim of this research is to define how oral history can be used as a source of information for archaeological research, and how it can be complementary to an approach in which the local...Show moreThe aim of this research is to define how oral history can be used as a source of information for archaeological research, and how it can be complementary to an approach in which the local community is included. By using the information for practical as well as ethical research engagements through an extensive analysis of the local perspective by looking at historicity and multivocality, it is shown that much more can be achieved with oral history research when the local perspective is thoroughly understood and precisely described. Therefore, Oral history as part of archaeological research is placed in between archaeological ethnography and community archaeology. Analysis of oral history data supports knowledge of the local display of historicization and thus helps to understand the information as deriving from a local perspective, which improves its usefulness for archaeological research. By looking at the presentation of historicity through specific characteristics of oral history storylines, a new framework of reference is presented for further research on combining oral history and archaeology. When the perspective of the local community is understood, information from oral history interviews can be included in the archaeological research as part of a multivocal interpretation of the past. Including voices of the local community and therefore adjusting archaeological research to their perspective and valuation of heritage promotes the active involvement and inclusion of the local community.Show less
