The Late European prehistory is a fascinating age. Indeed, the continent incurred in a series of incredible changes, both technological and social, with the introduction of new metallurgic...Show moreThe Late European prehistory is a fascinating age. Indeed, the continent incurred in a series of incredible changes, both technological and social, with the introduction of new metallurgic activities and productions and the rise of new dominant and macro-regional cultures. Within this frame, there are two, highly different situations in Central Europe: on the one hand, the last chapter of the European prehistory which corresponded to the Late Iron Age, was characterised by a cultural fragmentation between the European regions; whereas, on the other hand, few centuries earlier the Urnfield System unified the Central Europe under a common cultural phenomenon. Therefore, in a short period of time, Europe underwent an incredible regional differentiation, which constituted the latest image of Europe towards the beginning of the current era. Therefore, the aim of this thesis is to understand what happened between these two chronological poles, i.e. what happened to Central Europe before the Late Iron Age: the objective is hence to explore the existence and the evolution of the roots of the cultural fragmentation in the previous periods, which are the Urnfield age and the Early Iron Age. The analytic means will be the bronze weapons, since they constituted one of the most important cultural indicators of regional identities during the Late Bronze Age. Indeed, the Urnfield System featured a martial society, therefore the weapons were important symbols and, thus, they might have followed important cultural developments. Because the technological aspect was quite homogeneous in the Urnfield period, the weapons are analysed through their typological aspect, i.e. their fashions and decorations. In this thesis, the cultural regionalisation will be analysed through three important territories, due to their cultural role in the Late Iron Age: they are the Villanovan area, the Hallstatt region, and the Lusatian territory. Each one of them is explored over the two periods taken in considerations, in order to outline its evolution over time and its relationship with the other two regions. The logical assumption that one might think about, is that, as the majority of the historical and cultural phenomena, the cultural fragmentation witnessed by the Late Iron Age, has to have been a gradual process that took several centuries to acquire the final shape that characterises Central Europe at the end of its prehistory. Therefore, one might think that the Urnfield System featured an elevated degree of inner homogeneity, whereas the following Early Iron Age was characterised by a higher cultural regionalisation, if not total fragmentation already. However, this thesis seems to point toward an interesting and unexpected discovery: the regional differentiation, between the Urnfield period and the Late Iron Age, was not a gradual process. Indeed, surprisingly and contrary to the belief of many authors, the Urnfield System has been revealed less homogeneous than one might have thought, whereas the following period, i.e. that Early Iron Age which is so close to the fragmented Europe of the Late Iron Age, is much more homogeneous, not only than the expectation, but also than the unitarian Urnfield System itself. This means that, after the collapse of the latter, the post-Urnfield cultures, following the typologies of their predecessors, continued to develop new weapons, which clearly resembled the Urnfield models: therefore, the Early Iron Age Central Europe was an evolution and thus a continuation of the Urnfield System. Such new cultures, despite the end of the previous unitarian cultural phenomenon, became even more homogeneous, leading to the conclusion that, the cultural fragmentation witnessed in the following period, must have abruptly taken place at the beginning of the Late Iron Age, and that it hadn't roots in the Urnfield period, nor especially in the Early Iron Age.Show less
The aim of this research is to expand the understandings of stamp and cylinder seals as grave gifts in the Late Bronze Age Period of Cyprus. The significance of stamp and cylinder seals in other...Show moreThe aim of this research is to expand the understandings of stamp and cylinder seals as grave gifts in the Late Bronze Age Period of Cyprus. The significance of stamp and cylinder seals in other contexts has been more extensively investigated and interpreted, often understood as mercantile tools, markers of social status, and administrative tools (on both household and institutional levels). However, when it comes to grave contexts, the significance of stamp and cylinder seals is reduced to being decorative or used as an amulet. This research reconsiders that perspective by analyzing the stamp and cylinder seals found in grave contexts at the sites of Episkopi-Bamboula, Maroni, Kalavasos-Ayios Dhimitrios, Hala Sultan Tekke, and Enkomi. The data considered is the material and quality of the stamp and cylinder seals, the associated grave finds encountered in tombs, and the iconography and stylistic influences of the engravings. On the basis of these elements, patterns are identified and comparisons are made to the stamp and cylinder seals which were not located in grave contexts. This gives an insight to what characterizes the stamp and cylinder seals which were used as grave gifts, and whether these characteristics were different from stamp and cylinder seals in other contexts. Also considered is what factor it was which lead to their deposition in graves, as some stamp and cylinder seals were in circulation for multiple generations before being buried. This could be related to the wear of stamp and cylinder seals, and the fact that they reached the end of their use-life. Besides the quantitative analysis, specific contexts and notable finds are considered and discussed. Importantly, this research does not aim to create a singular interpretation of this object type, but rather understand the full range of uses and understandings which surrounded stamp and cylinder seals in the past. The analysis in this research establishes the variety of interpretations which can be applied to stamp and cylinder seals in tomb contexts – they can be indicators of vocation, status, and religion.Show less
At the end of the Late Bronze Age, around 1200 BCE, a wave of destructions raged over the eastern-Mediterranean. Many theories argue that migrant populations, mainly from the Aegean sphere, are...Show moreAt the end of the Late Bronze Age, around 1200 BCE, a wave of destructions raged over the eastern-Mediterranean. Many theories argue that migrant populations, mainly from the Aegean sphere, are responsible for the devastations. In their journey, Cyprus was an important stop en route, making the island an important location to test these theories. However, in recent research the role that indigenous populations played in the destruction events is being emphasized. In this research, it is investigated whether the indigenous populations of Cyprus might in fact be responsible for many, if not all of the events of destruction on the island at the end of the Late Bronze Age. To investigate this hypothesis, Enkomi, Hala Sultan Tekke and Pyla-Kokkinokremos were studied diachronically. In the tumultuous period of the LBA Collapse, these sites were continuous, destroyed and newly founded respectfully. From their excavation reports, the presence of foreign elements is analysed using the concept of deep change to see whether the elements sufficiently constitute to a foreign presence or are merely the result of other modes of interaction (trade, raids). Additionally, a settlement model analysis of site development was applied to see whether internal dynamics, such as competition and rivalry, could have played a part in the destruction episode. From the analyses, it is clear that no large-scale migration to Cyprus had taken place. Aegean people were most likely present in the Cypriot sites, but this concerns small-scale populations and is unrelated to a large-scale migration event whatsoever. The events at Hala Sultan Tekke and Pyla might be better explained in relation to the nearby economically competing site of Kition. At Enkomi the evidence is ambiguous, neither being explained by the previously proposed migration theory, nor by internal dynamics. It is concluded that based on the evidence from the three sites, a large-scale Aegean migration is insufficiently supported. Rather, the workings of intra-insular dynamics between settlement systems appear more plausible as explanation. The Aegean traces, then, are the result of trade interaction and the presence of small groups of Aegean descent.Show less
Research master thesis | Classics and Ancient Civilizations (research) (MA)
open access
The Late Bronze Age presents a peak in the cultural interactions between the different empires of the Eastern Mediterranean. Both bulk goods and small quantities of luxury products were exchanged...Show moreThe Late Bronze Age presents a peak in the cultural interactions between the different empires of the Eastern Mediterranean. Both bulk goods and small quantities of luxury products were exchanged between the kings and the local elite over long distances. In April 2019, one of these luxury products was discovered at the Cypriot site of Pyla-Kokkinokremos. This was an Egyptian calcite-alabaster drop jar incised with geometric and floral decorations. This master's thesis places this unique find in a broader context by undertaking a detailed comparative study of all the decorated calcite-alabaster drop jars discovered in Egypt, the Levant, and Cyprus. By doing this, the function, value, and role of the calcite-alabaster drop jar throughout the Eastern Mediterranean during the Late Bronze Age will be proposed. For all the calcite-alabaster drop jars discovered in Egypt, the Levant, and Cyprus, the shapes, decorations, find contexts, and associated finds will be described in detail. Furthermore, a closer look will be taken at the faience and bronze drop jars, the iconographical representations, textual sources, and results of the residue analyses of the preserved remains inside of several drop jars. In Egypt, drop-shaped ceramic vessels were starting from the First Intermediate period commonly used as storage jars. This drop shape was starting from the New Kingdom adopted for smaller vessels produced in more precious materials, such as calcite-alabaster, bronze, and faience. The find of these drop jars in a rich variety of contexts, not only in Egypt, but also throughout the Eastern Mediterranean, makes this group of objects exceptional. Eight calcite-alabaster drop jars were discovered in Egypt, originating from mainly royal and elite tombs buried with a variety of other precious objects. In addition to the calcite-alabaster drop jar discovered at the short-lived trading settlement of Pyla-Kokkinokremos, three calcite-alabaster drop jars were unearthed in the royal palace at Megiddo and in a rich tomb in the Kharji cave at Beirut. The finds of the drop jars in a variety of contexts throughout the Eastern Mediterranean constitute of compelling evidence for the function and value of the calcite-alabaster drop jar in Egypt, the Levant, and Cyprus, and its role in the diplomatic exchanges.Show less
Research master thesis | Classics and Ancient Civilizations (research) (MA)
open access
2021-09-25T00:00:00Z
The status and political organization of Cyprus during the Late Bronze Age (c. 1600-1100 BC) is a controversial topic. On the one hand the king of Alashiya ‘Cyprus’ is mentioned as an equal to the...Show moreThe status and political organization of Cyprus during the Late Bronze Age (c. 1600-1100 BC) is a controversial topic. On the one hand the king of Alashiya ‘Cyprus’ is mentioned as an equal to the Egyptian King in the Amarna Letters. Various texts from Egypt, Hatti and Ugarit reveal the increasing activity of the island in the trade networks of the eastern Mediterranean area and its dominant role as a copper supplier. On the other hand, the archaeological data inside the island display a society with simple socio-economic structures. The few signs of economic intensification, surplus manipulation and craft specialization are not enough to prove the “supremacy” of a certain elite or even a king. The current study aims to investigate these data, identify the urban and administrative centers of Late Bronze Age Alashiya and to reconstruct the networks within the island and the Eastern periphery. The results of this survey will reveal possible hierarchy among the urban sites and attempt to clarify the political organization of Late Bronze Age Cyprus. Did the 'King of Alashiya' truly exist?Show less
Research on urn cremations from the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age (c. 1350-500 BC) found in Northwestern continental Europe has been scarce over the last decades. Especially in terms of what...Show moreResearch on urn cremations from the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age (c. 1350-500 BC) found in Northwestern continental Europe has been scarce over the last decades. Especially in terms of what urn cremations contain, and if these contents are positioned in a certain way. This has resulted in the notion that Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age burials are simple graves, with simple funerary practices. However, this research reveals a variety of choices was made throughout the funerary process, which makes these funerary practices increasingly more complex than assumed. To study these past funerary practices, this research examined the choices made in terms of what Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age urn cremations contain, and the position of these contents. This was achieved through a literature study of sites in the Netherlands, Belgium, France and Germany, and by conducting a case study on a Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age urn cremation from Venlo-Zaarderheiken (Limburg, the Netherlands). The latter allowed the examination of the contents and their position inside this urn cremation in detail. As a result, a variety of choices and actions concerning the contents and their position inside these urn cremations became visible through this dataset. This indicated funerary practices were more elaborate than thought; cremated human remains were carefully collected from the pyre remains, after which they were occasionally positioned inside the urn. Pyre remains were generally not added, in contrast to grave goods which often accompanied the dead on the pyre during cremation as well. Before the final deposition, the cremated human remains were covered with ceramics or stone slabs to prevent contamination with soil or to protect them from (accidental) digging activities. Thus, this research yielded a lot of new information on Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age funerary practices in Northwestern continental Europe, which proves these practices were more elaborate than initially thought.Show less
The destruction of many of the great Near Eastern and Aegean states at the hands of the sea peoples during the 12th century B.C.E. has long been a contentious topic subject to controversy and...Show moreThe destruction of many of the great Near Eastern and Aegean states at the hands of the sea peoples during the 12th century B.C.E. has long been a contentious topic subject to controversy and speculation. Due to the absence of decisive archaeological evidence as to the identity of the sea peoples, countless researcher has speculated about the sea peoples’ identity on the basis of the archaeological and historical evidence that was thus far available. These sources of evidence are, however, far from decisive as evidenced from the countless competing theories regarding the identity of the sea peoples and the part they played in the destruction of the great states that defined the Near East and the Aegean during the 12th century B.C.E. In this thesis, I will investigate how the application of ancient DNA studies may help us to broaden our insight into the sea peoples’ identity and origin. The limitations and opportunities of ancient DNA analysis will be outlined and the prospects it provides will be highlighted. The available DNA studies of interest will be examined and studied to shed new light on the identity of the sea peoples the role thy played in the wide dynamics of the 12th century Aegean.Show less
Research master thesis | Classics and Ancient Civilizations (research) (MA)
open access
2022-06-30T00:00:00Z
This thesis investigates the revealed material (texts, rock monuments, pottery, architecture, seals, sealings and burials) in western Anatolia during the Late Bronze Age. More specifically, in my...Show moreThis thesis investigates the revealed material (texts, rock monuments, pottery, architecture, seals, sealings and burials) in western Anatolia during the Late Bronze Age. More specifically, in my thesis I examine the case of three western Anatolian sites, namely that of Gordion, Beycesultan and Miletus. This thesis does not only take into account the local material revealed in the aforementioned sites but it also investigates the foreign influences, such as the Mycenaean and the Hittite ones.Show less
Ground stone tools have clearly been neglected in archaeological research. The misconception that nothing interesting is to be learned from this particular material category has had a devastating...Show moreGround stone tools have clearly been neglected in archaeological research. The misconception that nothing interesting is to be learned from this particular material category has had a devastating effect on the amount of attention these objects have received in archaeological projects. They are often neglected in literature and discarded in the field. The presumption that these objects have nothing to tell is however wrong. Ground stone assemblages can tell us many things about the daily life on a site. This is why a new look into the ground stone artefacts of Tell Sabi Abyad was warranted. Research started with a look into the occurring types on the site. To facilitate this the original ground stone shape typology was revised. Via a look into ground stone types and the used stone types to produce these artefacts an overview of the Late Bronze Age ground stone assemblage of Tell Sabi Abyad was constructed. Tell Sabi Abyad also has the great advantage of having a clear stratigraphy and lots of in situ ground stone artefacts. However, perhaps even more interesting, there is also clear evidence of different crafts being practiced on site. Known crafts location include a baker, brewer and potter. By comparing their known locations on the site to concentrations of different types of ground stone a correlation between use, type and tool was researhed. A close look was taken at preferences in shape and stone type per ground stone tool category. Furthermore, both the spatial and chronological dispersal of the artefacts were examined to ascertain if any of the patterns could lend an insight into any of the preferences the inhabitants of the site had, where ground stone was concerned. Clusters of ground stone objects were found in areas of the site where certain crafts were performed. There were, for example, clusters of ground stone found inside a pottery workshop (Duistermaat 2007, 705) and the office of the brewer22. Other than some cuneiform the location of the brewer was confirmed by any other material evidence. Illustrating that ground stone archaeological research is not as insignificant as it is being generally portrayed.Show less
This BA thesis investigates the worked-bone assemblage of Late Bronze Age (LBA) Tell Sabi Abyad (ca. 1230-1150 B.C), a settlement mound located in the Raqqa province of Northern Syria. The LBA...Show moreThis BA thesis investigates the worked-bone assemblage of Late Bronze Age (LBA) Tell Sabi Abyad (ca. 1230-1150 B.C), a settlement mound located in the Raqqa province of Northern Syria. The LBA settlement comprises a Middle Assyrian stronghold. It was a military and administrative centre which primarily functioned as a fortified farmstead, named a dunnu by the Assyrians. The goal of this thesis is to determine the character of the assemblage and to shed light on the function and role of the bone artefacts in the LBA society. In addition I have performed a diachronic analysis to find out whether the assemblage changed through time. The worked-bone assemblage is a relatively small but diverse. It comprises approximately 105 artefacts. A preliminary classification, based on morphology, is presented. The assemblage consists of three categories: bone tools, bone ornaments and other bone objects. The category bone tools comprise awls, combs, needles, spatulas and nails. The bone ornaments exist from beads, inlay, plaques and a bracelet. The other bone objects comprise discs, polished knucklebones and a number of miscellaneous objects. First, the function of the artefacts is analysed based on their morphology and when possible, traces of use. For some artefacts, the analysis of the morphology could not shed light on a plausible function. To further elucidate their function and role, the context of the artefacts was analysed. I have tried to elucidate in which areas of the LBA settlement the bone artefacts were used. From the context and morphology it appears that the worked-bone artefacts were used in domestic buildings, workshops and in open areas of the Late Bronze Age settlement. They were probably used for pottery production and in the production of basketry, matting and leather working. The bone objects had a diverse role in society as they were used as tools, jewellery, personal ornaments, game pieces and grave goods. They were present in every phase of the LBA occupation. The worked-bone objects of LBA Tell Sabi Abyad may have been small in numbers but were used in all dimensions of society for a large variety of activities.Show less
