There have been many studies done on Medieval Europe and the Kingdoms and cultures that lived during this period. The Merovingians and the Anglo-Saxons are two of these groups that lived as...Show moreThere have been many studies done on Medieval Europe and the Kingdoms and cultures that lived during this period. The Merovingians and the Anglo-Saxons are two of these groups that lived as neighbours in the same period. A lot of research has therefore been done on them. However, one element has been overlooked by both of them for many centuries: women. Women have been an overlooked part of history and society. Only in the last few decades did they get more attention. This thesis investigates the lives and deaths of women in the Merovingian and the early and middle Anglo-Saxon periods from an archaeological standpoint. It does this by looking at the different themes, such as burial practices, what their status was in society and the influence of Christianity. This thesis is a literary review that discusses two case studies; the Merovingian cemetery of Bergeijk-Fazantlaan and the Anglo-Saxon cemetery in Buckland, Dover. There are a lot of similarities between the two neighbouring groups. A similarity is that both groups highly sexualised their women. Additionally, women did not have a lot of power and control in their lives. Their societal status depended on their fathers and husbands' status. There were still a few differences between the two groups. The Anglo-Saxons still used cremation burials, while the Merovingians discarded them. Another difference is the appearance of knives in the Anglo-Saxon female graves in the case study. These knives show a difference in how women were seen in society. Merovingian women were encouraged to be helpless and to never bear arms. The knives show that the Anglo-Saxon women were encouraged to protect themselves and to be slightly more powerful in life. This thesis showed, that even though the neighbouring cultures had a lot in common, they did have differences. One of the biggest differences between the two is the difference in scholars. This is why cross-culture analyses are important as they show new sides to old research and give people new ideas to test in their respective fields.Show less
Research master thesis | Archaeology (research) (MA/MSc)
under embargo until 2025-08-31
2025-08-31T00:00:00Z
Northern Gaul in Merovingian times (450-650 CE) is well known for its characteristic pottery assemblages in settlement- and burial sites consisting of wheel-thrown ceramics. Rooted in Roman...Show moreNorthern Gaul in Merovingian times (450-650 CE) is well known for its characteristic pottery assemblages in settlement- and burial sites consisting of wheel-thrown ceramics. Rooted in Roman traditions, these ceramics were produced in specialized potters workshops of which the majority was located along the rivers Rhine and Meuse. Another group of pottery, the handmade ceramics, however, are often given less attention. These handmade pots have often been perceived and described by archaeologists as rudimentary, poorly made and of low quality. In addition, they have been associated with Germanic culture. This is often followed by the assumption that this type of pottery is, in stark contrast to the wheel-thrown ceramics, made by unskilled potters, and therefore made locally on an occasional level in a household setting by woman and children. These claims are however based on modern assumptions only, since the production aspects of these handmade ceramics have hardly been studied. Furthermore, they show a strong bias that is rooted in our history with the industrial revolution and capitalism, and in value-associations and preconceptions regarding Roman and Germanic culture. The way archaeologists perceive and value these handmade ceramics should therefore not be mistaken for the perception and valuation of these ceramics by the early medieval societies that created and used them. By using an integrated chaîne opératoire approach that considers the technological, social and symbolic dimension of the production of ceramic vessels, this thesis attempts to gain insights on the production, perception and value of these handmade ceramics in the early medieval societies of Northern-Gaul. The ceramic assemblage of the recently excavated Merovingian cemetery of Nijmegen-Lentseveld (The Netherlands) was chosen as a case-study. At this site, roughly dating to the 6th century, an notably high concentration of handmade ceramics was found, together with well-known wheel-thrown vessels. This provided the unique opportunity to study both handmade and wheel-thrown ceramics together. A technological analysis, using a combination of macroscopic-, petrographic- and chemical techniques, was performed on the Lentseveld assemblage as well as on several local reference ceramics and clay samples. The results show that the production of the handmade ceramics found at the cemetery of Nijmegen-Lentseveld, was more complex than the assumed local household production. It is demonstrated that a large majority of the handmade ceramics from the site were made with a clay with very similar properties, that does not match with the clay samples collected in the vicinity of the site, nor with the known local ceramic productions. Although it was not possible to conclude with certainty whether the exact same clay source was used to create all ceramics and determine the location of such clay source, it can be concluded that the clay most likely was collected further away from the site and should be sought at a more regional level. The fact that there appears to be a consensus on the type of clay deemed suitable to create these ceramics and a similar or the same clay source was used for a large group of handmade ceramics, suggest the clay collection was rather well organized. This contradicts the previous assumptions of local household production whereby each household collects their own clay at a source near their house. The integrated chaîne opératoire approach used in this thesis has furthermore shown that production entails more than just technological actions, and also has a strong social and symbolic dimension. It uncovered the many material-, social – and imagined values that could have been associated with (the production of) handmade ceramics, such as the act of crafting itself, the transformation by fire and the value of materials. This shows that the perception and values attributed handmade ceramics by the early medieval societies of Northern Gaul who created and used them were mostly likely very different from negative perception and values projected onto these ceramics by archaeologists. This thesis therefore shows that there is a strong need for a re-evaluation and foremost a re-valuation of these handmade ceramics, and has taken the first step in doing so by taking a different approach to analysing them with the help of a case-study.Show less
Early medieval garnet inlaid objects are subject to a lot of studies, predominantly those of economies and exchange. The topic of social significance, especially in relation to gender, is however...Show moreEarly medieval garnet inlaid objects are subject to a lot of studies, predominantly those of economies and exchange. The topic of social significance, especially in relation to gender, is however barely touched upon. This research studies the gender representation of garnet inlaid objects in Frankish-Merovingian Europe during the fifth and sixth centuries. In total 549 garnet inlaid objects were assembled from over 105 sites within the research area consisting of the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the German Provinces Nordrhein-Westfalen and Rhineland-Pfalz. The types of objects found within the research area mainly consist of embellishments, such as brooches, jewellery and belt fittings. This study also comprised of rarer objects such as weapons or saddle mounts. The results of the dataset are critically assessed , looking mostly at the gender theories established during the last 30 years. Also, the dataset is incorporated within a larger research frame by including the examples of Childeric and Sutton Hoo. As a result it could be established that garnet inlaid objects are predominantly found within female graves. The amount of garnet used upon an object and the types of objects found change over time, but they remain present in female contexts throughout the period. The objects adorned with garnets that are incorporated within the male grave are usually only present within sixth century contexts. However at the end of the fifth century they are first found related to a very rich male context (e.g. Childeric). An area where garnets are predominantly present in the research area could not be discovered but some regional differences were observed. The rapid decline within garnet adorned objects found within the research area, combined with the Anglo Saxon Sotton Hoo burial is suggesting a geographical shift in the use of garnet inlaid objects. A lot remains to be researched in new studies. The sexing of graves where the objects are found is, for instance, a worthwhile research focus. Also a thorough examination of the total grave assemblages could reveal new and exciting data.Show less
This thesis analyses ‘odd deposits’ from the early medieval Low Lands coastal area (modern Netherlands and Belgium) and Anglo-Saxon England. ‘Odd deposits’ are deliberately placed in settlement...Show moreThis thesis analyses ‘odd deposits’ from the early medieval Low Lands coastal area (modern Netherlands and Belgium) and Anglo-Saxon England. ‘Odd deposits’ are deliberately placed in settlement context. They can be ritual or religious, but mundane as well. The deposits played a role in the several processes that sustained the early medieval settlement. The data for this thesis originates from official published archaeological reports and grey literature. This is ordered by material, date and context feature, to create a comparable overview. A variety of materials were used for ‘odd deposits’. Material categories include animal burials, animal skulls, human inhumations, pottery, stone artefacts, building material and plants/ wooden material. ‘Odd de-posits’ were placed at several settlement features. They are found within or in close association with earthfast buildings, enclosure ditches, sunken-featured buildings, wells and water pools. The data show us the great variety of objects and contexts used for ‘odd deposits’ in the early medieval Low Lands coastal area. There was a high local preference. Anglo-Saxon England was more homogenous when it concerns the deposition practice. Deposition took place in single or multiple events. Single event deposits were often associated with the construction or demolishing of features. ‘Odd deposits’ associated with the renewal phases of features often happened in multiple episodes. ‘Odd deposits’ could also have been part of a reciprocity system, where the deposition was used as a gift to ask the gods or ancestors for favours. The deposits can be analysed by object in combination with their context of deposition. Animal deposits of cattle, horse and dog had a high domestic value and are mostly found close or on the domestic area of the farmyard. This also counts for infant burials. Deviant burials, on the other hand, are mostly deposited at the edges of the settlements.Show less
This thesis is a study on Roman remains in Merovingian grave contexts in Northwest Europe. Roman building materials and Roman coins have been found in numerous Merovingian graves throughout Europe....Show moreThis thesis is a study on Roman remains in Merovingian grave contexts in Northwest Europe. Roman building materials and Roman coins have been found in numerous Merovingian graves throughout Europe. The purpose of this study was to find out why the Roman remains were present or deposited in a Merovingian funerary context. Did the remains land there by chance or have they been reused on purpose? Type of objects, type of alterations, position of the objects and the ratio in which the objects occur in the Merovingian cemeteries and between the Merovingian cemeteries have all been taken into consideration. The results show that the majority of Roman remains have been given as a grave gift or have been deliberately deposited into the grave. The Roman building material was deliberately used in the graves’ constructions. Extraordinary efforts have been made to achieve this, as it was not necessary. Grave constructions with a rather simple wooden container or even without container also occur in the same cemetery. The Roman coins in the graves functioned as an amulet or as obol, with a few exceptions. The use as an amulet or as obol in Merovingian grave contexts also occurs in Germany. Furthermore, the Roman sandstone monument that has been deliberately destroyed shows that objects do not necessarily have to be complete to gain a spiritual charge. It should be noted that the reuse of Roman remains in Merovingian grave context does not occur on a regular basis, but they are common throughout Europe. The study of Roman remains is important to understand the transition from the Roman period to the Merovingian period.Show less
Analyzing the spatial distribution of diagnostic ceramics, this study provides a more detailed insight into the development of the early to central medieval settlement located at Valkenburg De...Show moreAnalyzing the spatial distribution of diagnostic ceramics, this study provides a more detailed insight into the development of the early to central medieval settlement located at Valkenburg De Woerd. To doing so, both ceramics and features such as wells and ditches have been plotted using a Geographical Information System. This research concerning the analysis of pottery from De Woerd is the third in line and specifically focuses on ceramics found in the southern part of the settlement. In this thesis results of quantities of fabrics and vessel types are presented and discussed. All ceramics in a settlement context have been analyzed including those of two previous studies. The development of habitation is presented by both the spatial distribution of diagnostic ceramics as well as the topographical location of dated features. This discussion however also relates to the impact of site formation processes, since they will have had an impact on the spatial distribution of both ceramics and dated features. Especially a combination of ploughing and levelling has affected higher situated levees resulting in the disappearing of the original surface. Despite these site formation processes, both the assemblage of the northern and southern part of the settlement yielded similar ratios in fabrics and vessel types. This is also concluded when the assemblage from the settlement is compared to the overall collection of ceramics found in trench 510 located in a gulley. By combining all three collections and comparing this complete assemblage with other contemporaneous sites, it can be concluded that the ratios concerning fabric and vessel types, De Woerd fit well in the regional image of the use of pottery in the early medieval period. It is argued that habitation started at around AD 575/600 and continued into the Carolingian period. In the first half of the tenth century there may have been a short hiatus in habitation in the excavated part of the settlement. Habitation may have been present further east. The start of habitation linked to this later phase could be placed at around AD 950 and came to an end in the first half of the twelfth century. Based on the spatial distribution of diagnostic ceramics as well as the location of dated ditches and wells, it is concluded that all parcels on site were inhabited during the Merovingian and Carolingian period. During the Carolingian period, habitation shifted further in an eastward direction and the area became in use as agricultural land. In the central medieval period habitation in the excavated area consisted of a single farmstead, located at the southern part of the site.Show less
Archaeological research into the early Middle ages in the southern Dutch province of Noord Brabant is relies on a theory of prof. Dr. Theuws regarding settlement patterns and development. Recent...Show moreArchaeological research into the early Middle ages in the southern Dutch province of Noord Brabant is relies on a theory of prof. Dr. Theuws regarding settlement patterns and development. Recent excavations in the town of Uden challenge this theory however. The aim of this paper is to challenge the theory with the main research-question: Can the excavation of the early medieval settlement and cemetery of Uden-West change the current theory of prof. Theuws on early medieval settlement-patterns and settlement development in eastern Noord Brabant, and if so, how? The theory of prof. Theuws focuses on habitation/cultivation areas (or H/C areas in short). Habitation supposedly started around 575 AD, and the earliest settlements were shifting settlements, whilst the earliest settlers avoided the smaller H/C areas. These settlements clustered during the late Merovingian period, but began to shift once more thanks to a population decline during the Carolingian and Ottonian period. A rise in the population forced settlements to cluster once more, and the settlements were eventually forced of the H/C areas in the Late Middle Ages to maximise the agricultural usage of the areas. Merovingian cemeteries were positioned outside of the H/C area. In Uden, however, the cemetery is positioned close to/towards the middle of the H/C area. Habitation also started about 40 years earlier than prof. Dr. Theuws theorised. The size of the population was also smaller, with a maximum of two families. The local cemetery was only used by the people that lived on the H/C area of Uden-West. Furthermore, there is no evidence for clustering of the settlement until 900 AD, and no indication for a decline in the population during the Carolingian and Ottonian period. Overall, based on the H/C area of Uden-west, a more flexible view should be adopted towards early medieval settlement patterns and settlement development, since a lot of H/C areas are now dismissed for early medieval habitation because they are believed to be too small.Show less
In the municipality of Oegstgeest (NL), an early medieval settlement was excavated spanning an area of circa eight hectares. The excavation revealed both the core habitation areas and the periphery...Show moreIn the municipality of Oegstgeest (NL), an early medieval settlement was excavated spanning an area of circa eight hectares. The excavation revealed both the core habitation areas and the periphery of the settlement. Among the thousands of features and finds related to the daily activities of the inhabitants, 27 contexts were excavated that contained human remains, of which nine contained (partially) complete individuals, and 18 secondary deposited remains. The human remains and their associated contexts are the focus of this research. The human remains were subjected to various analyzes, which provided different views on the lives and deaths of the inhabitants of early medieval Oegstgeest. Based on the analysis of the geographical location of the remains, it was argued that the choice for burial location was influenced by the presence of landmarks with a liminal character, such as boundary ditches. The analysis of the burial features, and the position of the corpse therein, revealed a variety of body positions and sepulchers. The osteological analysis of the bones indicated that a minimum of thirteen individuals was represented in the assemblage. The primary inhumations consisted of both male and female individuals with a varying age-at-death. The demographic composition of the deviant burials and secondary deposits was highly homogenous, consisting almost exclusively of adult male individuals. Few pathological conditions were identified, but a relatively large number of bones (from secondary deposits) exhibited perimortem sharp force trauma and scavenging marks. From five individuals strontium and/or stable oxygen isotopes were analyzed to determine the area in which they were born. The results indicated that four individuals were not born in the coastal region of the Netherlands. It was possible to state that the five individuals were born in four different areas. Based on the isotope results, it was argued that early medieval migration flows were more diverse than previously thought. The final part of the thesis discussed cultural explanations for the phenomena that were observed in the assemblage of human remains. For the secondary deposits it was proposed that they were the product of an excarnation ritual. Possibly the wolf, raven and eagle - important animals in early medieval mythology- fulfilled a role in the excarnation process. Alternatively, the secondary deposits and deviant primary deposits might be the product of ritual offerings to specific Celtic deities. Sun or wheel symbols found in the settlement (such as in a deposit of human bones and on a silver bowl), were possibly also linked to a Celtic religious cult. The cremated remains of one individual, found in the fill of disused well, were interpreted as a foundation- or closure deposit. For the primary inhumations, which were exclusively found near the boundaries of habitation areas, it was proposed that they possibly served as territorial markers. Depositing deceased relatives at the periphery of the household estate might have strengthened the ancestral affiliation, and thereby the claim on the territory.Show less
The Merovingian period is between the Imperium Romanum lasting until the fourth century on one side and the Carolingian Empire from the middle of the eight century on the other side. In the debate...Show moreThe Merovingian period is between the Imperium Romanum lasting until the fourth century on one side and the Carolingian Empire from the middle of the eight century on the other side. In the debate on the economy of the Early Middle Ages, there is a contradictive understanding between the “ruralisation” implying “radical simplification” (Wickham 2005) and the continuation of long-distance trade with high peasant mobility (Theuws 2012; Theuws in press). The argument for putting long-distance trade back on the research agenda to challenge the dominance of the town-hinterland model (Theuws 2012, 30) is picked up in the MA thesis by dating and provenancing the barrels and timbers found in the linings of wells and revetments at the Oegstgeest-Rijnfront site, an early medieval riverine settlement on the bank of the Old Rhine in the Western Netherlands. The construction of Leiden’s BioScience Park demanded extensive excavations to document the archaeological record of the settlement ex-situ. Post-excavation analyses are still in process. The main aim of the present study was to compare the chronology and the socio-economic relations of the Oegstgeest-Rijnfront site with other riverine settlements along the Old-Rhine during the early medieval period and the rise of the emporia. Since precise dating can at present not be established by pottery, the current study focused on the archaeological timber finds. The aim was to determine (i) the felling dates and (ii) the geographical origin of the timber elements from the settlement by means of tree ring research. The results from the present tree-ring study and previous ones were synthesized. The data-set consists of 527 documented wooden elements recovered during the two campaigns of 2009 and 2014 and excavated from wells and revetments. The dendro-chronological study includes the measurement of 152 timber samples from 16 archaeological contexts, which reflect 96 TS. The TS were grouped into 6 TGs. In total 13 features of the present study could be dated. The results were compared with previous dendrochronological studies in order to synthesize all present data. Estimated felling dates (i.e. presence of sapwood) and exact felling dates (i.e. presence of a bark edge) have been taken as indicative for establishing absolute dated construction activity in the riverine settlement. The activity can be plotted most securely between AD 644 ± 1 to tpq AD 684 ± 8, but an earlier starting date of tpq AD 561 ± 5 needs to be taken in consideration. The provenance of the timbers of greenwood from the plank-lined wells compare best with the reference chronology that represent timbers that are excavated along the Dutch lower Rhine and Meuse rivers. The four Oak barrels from the barrel-lined wells and seven reused planks from a plank-lined water well have their geographical origin in the German Rhineland, predating the heyday of Dorestad, implying that long-distance trade can be detected in the Rhine estuary already before the rise of Dorestat as an emporium.Show less
Recent archaeological research in Oegstgeest, led by the Faculty of Archaeology of Leiden University, has revealed that the Merovingian settlement was active in the trade of crafts and agricultural...Show moreRecent archaeological research in Oegstgeest, led by the Faculty of Archaeology of Leiden University, has revealed that the Merovingian settlement was active in the trade of crafts and agricultural products that was probably produced in or near the settlement. To meet the demands of trade the local environment had to sustain these activities An understanding of the area surrounding the settlement is therefore necessary to gain insight into the cultural world of the Merovingians in Oegstgeest. A reconstruction of this environment may possibly contribute to the understanding of the dynamics between culture and nature. Plant macrofossils in a sediment sample from an excavated well in 2009 is analysed to study this environment. It demonstrates that the settlement was situated in a landscape with woodlands, dry and damp grasslands, dunes, mudflats, and water sources such as swamps, channels and (side-)rivers.Show less
The cemetery of Putten had a close relation between structure and chronology. Even though the cemetery has not been completely excavated in the twenties of the 20th century, it is possible to make...Show moreThe cemetery of Putten had a close relation between structure and chronology. Even though the cemetery has not been completely excavated in the twenties of the 20th century, it is possible to make several assumptions based on the available data. A newer plan has been included in the attachment, showing not earlier published structures of the cemetery. These newly added parts offer a great help with the analysis of structure and chronology. The eldest part of the excavated cemetery can be connected to small circular structures consisting of postholes or ditches, which encircled a cremation. A possible new start of a cemetery seemed to have been made after the cremation burials were no longer in use and a transition was made to inhumation graves. This new start was located more to the east of the cemetery and consisted of rich graves. Here a distinction could be made between graves that belonged to females and males. These graves could have been encircled by either a single or double circular ditch. Finds included weaponry, pottery, brooches, etc. Around this core a younger zone was situated. These graves contained burials joined only by the combination of knives with buckles or necklaces. The amount of finds that was in the older zone has been reduced to the above combination only. A distinction between genders is no longer possible to make. No skeletal material was collected from any inhumation graves, mostly due to the poor condition they were in when they were excavated and an assumption cannot be made on finds alone. This zone and the older zone with the ‘rich’ graves also had postholes around the graves. Other elements were also situated in these two zones, such as: double graves and differently orientated graves. This disappeared over time with the circular ditches and the burial gifts. The outer zone of the excavated cemetery is a zone without any finds.Show less
The earliest Middle Ages are known as the Merovingian period and start around 450 AD and last until 720 AD. This period is often described as “Dark Ages” because of the contrast with the Roman...Show moreThe earliest Middle Ages are known as the Merovingian period and start around 450 AD and last until 720 AD. This period is often described as “Dark Ages” because of the contrast with the Roman period. This distinction is colored but nevertheless is it true that the Netherlands were more scarcely habited in this period. The Dutch landscape and its influence on the quality of habitation are important factors. Merovingian people were aware of the landscape and tried to adjust their habitation to the landscape. This resulted in a distribution of settlements in areas were habitation was most favorable and easy. Another important factor in this period for them was trade, this is something they had in common with their predecessors. They maintained large networks of trade and exchange and were able to explore the world. This is important for the origin, production, distribution and traditions within luxury goods such as metal and glass objects. The Early Middle Ages are an underexplored period. This goes especially for the many find categories found in Merovingian cemeteries such as the glass vessels. Glass vessels are magnificent products of early medieval crafts. It needs a lot of skill to make them and raw materials came from afar. It is strange that they have not been the subject of intensive research yet, although new research is started in the countries surrounding the Netherlands. Research in the Netherlands lags behind. There are no typologies or studies for the complete glass vessel dataset for the Merovingian period. For this thesis it was chosen to limit the study to the finds known from cemeteries. Two topics are addressed: the role of glass vessels in the Merovingian burial ritual and what the distribution of glass vessels in Merovingian graves do tell us about exchange mechanisms in the Merovingian period. This second topic is a pilot to see if any interesting information and new research topic were to be found. This topic was limited due to the amount of time available for this master thesis. Many new insights were found in this thesis regarding the typological distribution of glass vessels; type, color and decorations. One of the most important results is the distinction between glasses from the Rhine and Maas valley. They seem to represent a difference in production for the Rhineland and eastern Belgium/northern France. This is important because this shows us the origin of glasses and is a start for the research on trade and exchange for the whole Merovingian period. This thesis shows that further research is important, interesting and will probably provide new insights for the whole Merovingian period. Therefore a list of suggestions for further research is added to provide some ideas.Show less
A few years ago a well-preserved Early Medieval (Merovingian) settlement was discovered near the banks of the river the Old Rhine that will play a vital part in the understanding of the...Show moreA few years ago a well-preserved Early Medieval (Merovingian) settlement was discovered near the banks of the river the Old Rhine that will play a vital part in the understanding of the habitational history in the coastal area in this period. These remains are threathened by development plans, which is why a large-scale excavation is taking place and will continue untill circa 2014. The central question in this thesis is wheter metallurgy was practiced in this settlement and if so, which metals were used. A majority of the metallic and metallurgy related finds have been examined. Besides (iron)slagmaterial a couple of crucibles and fragments thereof have been found, that point to the casting of unnoble metals. For this end they recycled material from existing objects. The motivation for the use of brass could be its gold colour. Concerning the slagmaterial the evidence seems to point more at the smithing of iron than iron production.Show less
