Generally, many studies have been conducted on megalithic monuments worldwide, and more specifically in certain regions. In Atlantic Europe, there has been much research done on Neolithic megaliths...Show moreGenerally, many studies have been conducted on megalithic monuments worldwide, and more specifically in certain regions. In Atlantic Europe, there has been much research done on Neolithic megaliths; however, much of this has not included cross-study analyses, especially relating to certain types including hunebedden, allée couvertes, and portal tombs. They mainly focus on the immediate region certain tombs dominate. This thesis intends to broaden this scope by investigating both specific and broader similarities and differences between three specific megalith types: hunebedden, allée couvertes, and portal tombs. This is investigated through a literature study review, which includes three case studies: D26-Drouwenerveld (Dutch hunebed), Men-ar-Rompet (French allée couvertes), and Killaclohane I and II (Irish portal tombs). All three monument types have many similarities and differences. Primarily, they are all considered Neolithic funerary monuments, following similar basic constructions, albeit with local variations. Stone types used offer information regarding construction and intentionality, depending on where those stones originated. This adds to the symbolic landscape regardless it’s symbolism before construction. The tombs orientation provides information about construction and ritualistic beliefs considered during construction. Additionally, there is a general lack of settlement around areas with many monuments, although that is likely interpreted as a lack of evidence. Artefacts associated with the specific monuments often indicate the cultures associated with them, offering insights into the tombs, their uses, and other factors including economy, and re-uses of the tombs. Developments often differ throughout Atlantic Europe as seen in Ireland’s island context, versus France or the Netherlands continental context. While Ireland continues to see continental influences in passage tombs, there are also newer forms of tombs, for example, portal tombs (also found in Cornwall and Wales), which have few comparable examples on the continent. Whereas France and the Netherlands share similar developmental trajectories (variations of passage tombs). While this thesis offers insights into these developments, more research could offer further understanding of them in a larger scale, including greater periods of reuse and what that may imply.Show less
In dit onderzoek wordt er gekeken naar neolithisatie in huidig rugklaseducatie en hoe het zich verhoudt tot wetenschappelijk onderzoek over dit onderwerp. Dit wordt gedaan omdat dit onderwerp van...Show moreIn dit onderzoek wordt er gekeken naar neolithisatie in huidig rugklaseducatie en hoe het zich verhoudt tot wetenschappelijk onderzoek over dit onderwerp. Dit wordt gedaan omdat dit onderwerp van belang is en goed behandeld moet worden. De geaccepteerde basiskennis wordt uit de afgelopen 10 jaar van onderzoek gehaald en vergeleken met wat er wordt gedoceerd op de MAVO, HAVO en het VWO. De basiskennis relateert zich aan de verspreidingsmethode van neolithisatie, de interacties tussen jager-verzamelaars en boeren en boeren onderling, en de impact die neolithisatie had op de omgeving. Verder worden er suggesties voor veranderingen in het onderwijs gedaan, zoals het verwijderen van incorrecte en gedateerde informatie en meer betrokkenheid van archeologen in het onderwijs. Verder worden er suggesties gedaan voor vervolgonderzoek. Uit dit onderzoek komt dat er overlap is tussen de huidige geaccepteerde basiskennis in de wetenschap en de lesmethodes, maar dat er ook punten zijn die missen en beter kunnen.Show less
Research master thesis | Archaeology (research) (MA/MSc)
open access
During the Michelsberg period (4,400 to 3,500 cal BC), harvesting tools were rarely discovered at excavations in North-Western Europe, be it in Belgium, Southern Netherlands, Northern France, or...Show moreDuring the Michelsberg period (4,400 to 3,500 cal BC), harvesting tools were rarely discovered at excavations in North-Western Europe, be it in Belgium, Southern Netherlands, Northern France, or Northern Germany. But cereal consumption was widely practiced, as grains discovered in these settlements show. Several researchers have, over the last 50 years, highlighted this discrepancy of missing harvesting tools and presence of cereal grains. They have tried to explain that, during this 900-year Michelsberg period and over a surface of several hundred square kilometres, cereals had to be collected either with the help of bare hands or with tools made from other, organic materials. But so far none of such traces have been detected in excavations. The aim of this paper is to present, through experimental archaeology and the analysis of use-wear traces, that tools made from organic material such as shell, wood and bone could have been used to gather cereal plants. To achieve this aim, a large variety of experimental tools have been created and tested on different fields of typical cereal types of the Michelsberg period. These were Triticum monococcum or einkorn wheat, Triticum dicoccum or emmer wheat, Triticum aestivum or naked wheat, and Hordeum vulgare or barley. The result of these harvest experiments has been analysed quantitatively with regards to the achieved harvested surface, grain yield, and harvesting speed. The use-wear traces created by these different cereal plants during the harvest have also been studied. They are polish, striations, edge rounding and edge damages, which have been evaluated under different microscopes to reveal typical shapes these cereals leave on tools. The results of that harvesting experiment and use-wear analysis are presented in this thesis and could serve as reference to interpret archaeological material differently in the future.Show less
Social networks are analysed to identify connections between archaeological phenomena, such as pottery assemblages, communication networks, and sites. This can be done by linking these phenomena...Show moreSocial networks are analysed to identify connections between archaeological phenomena, such as pottery assemblages, communication networks, and sites. This can be done by linking these phenomena using statistical methods or abstract network models. However, the use of abstract, computer-generated networks to study empirical datasets has been underused in archaeology. Therefore, employing computational models from other academic disciplines can benefit from this lack of abstract network analysis. This study analyses how various computer-generated networks influence the rate of adoption of the Bell Beaker pottery in the Lower Rhine Region. The Bell Beaker pottery is a Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age material culture that had been widespread across Western and Central Europe. For more than a century, there has been much debate on how the Bell Beaker phenomenon became prevalent in the archaeological record. The spread of the Bell Beaker pottery can be analysed in the context of the Lower Rhine Region by using the sociological concept of diffusion of innovations. In this thesis, the diffusion of innovations is applied to an agent-based model in which the spread of the Bell Beaker phenomenon in the Lower Rhine Region is simulated. In this model, various computer-generated networks were tested to analyse which network type fits the Bell Beaker data the best. This data is comprised of pottery frequencies from settlement sites which were chronologically organised to show how the Bell Beaker pottery was distributed over time. The results from the simulation were compared to the communication network of the Lower Rhine Region devised by Kleijne (2019). The results of this comparison show that the diffusion of the Bell Beaker phenomenon was initially fast but stagnated later in time. The diffusion was transmitted over a network structure in which a few nodes have a central position in connecting the entire network (scale-free network). The results indicate that using abstract, computer-generated networks is a suitable approach to assessing archaeological networks. Additionally, the application of theoretical and computational models from other academic disciplines can contribute to archaeological theory building. Further research is needed to test other types of network structures that were not applicable to the model used in this thesis.Show less
Minimally modified bone tools have been a difficult subject inside the complicated topic of bone tools. Being problematic to recognise and characterise it has been the subject of several...Show moreMinimally modified bone tools have been a difficult subject inside the complicated topic of bone tools. Being problematic to recognise and characterise it has been the subject of several experimental studies. Two studies knapping larger faunal bone remains Mateo-Lomba, Fernández-Marchena, Ollé and Cáceres (2020) and Hind Saadek-Kooros (1972) were taken as references for this paper. This research is an extension of these studies. By knapping Capreolus capreolus metapodials with a hammer stone on an anvil for marrow removal bone fragments are created. 37 Usable fragments were created. These fragments are analysed by looking at possible use and the need for modifications for them to be categorised as certain bone tools. The fragments are compared to two Neolithic excavations, Schipluiden and Hardinxveld-Giessendam De Bruin, and through morphology given possible tool typing. The typing existed out of pins, needles, awls, chisels, blanks, spatulas, blacks, a scraper and a possible hide working tool. Three-quarters still needed modifications before being able to be used as tools. About 24% had the right shape to be used immediately, the biggest amount of these were awls. There were some fragments which also only needed light reshaping before use. This result showed that modifications are not necessarily needed when creating minimally modified bone tools.Show less
Stinging nettle (Urtica dioica) is one of the most common perennial plants on the European continent. Growing equally well in forests, ditches and ruderal spaces up to 2.5m tall, it is easy to find...Show moreStinging nettle (Urtica dioica) is one of the most common perennial plants on the European continent. Growing equally well in forests, ditches and ruderal spaces up to 2.5m tall, it is easy to find and identify due to its stem and characteristic oval, serrated leaves being lavishly covered in irritant-filled trichomes, a hair-like organs. Having plenty of nutritional and medical applications, it is however often overlooked as a source of textile fibres. The issue perhaps being a result of dying traditions of nettle uses, as well as being associated with war time crop, due to the increased attempts at industrialisation during the both World Wars in Europe. Yet, it had a much more profound role, not only in historical times. It used to be known as distinctive, luxurious, soft, fine and full of lustre fabric of Bronze Age elites, as it was identified as a priced grave gift in one of the richest and most splendid burials of the period from the mound Lushoj in Denmark. It was also known and valued in mediaeval times as both sign of status, but also as tough, fast drying and resistant fibre preferred for rigging. Urtica dioica seems often neglected in the research of Neolithic textiles. The aim of this paper therefore is to propose it as an alternative material to the main source of fibre of the age, that was newly domesticated and introduced to the small continent flax, as well as more and more acknowledged, and utilised since at least Mesolithic, tree basts. It is necessary to draw attention towards nettle, as there is a small, yet growing set of samples identified as this plant. The best known examples coming from spheres where the introduction of flax came at a later period, as the waterlogged site of La Draga, Spain where a whole ball of yarn has been found, or a thread on the fishing comb from seabed near Skjoldnas on Aro in Denmark. To contextualise these finds, a wider look at the Urticaceae family is included, especially as Japanese cousins of the common nettle is one of the oldest known textile dated to 10 000 BC early Jomon period, while well documented processing methods of Boehmeria nivea might be also applied for Urtica. Similarly, ethnological, historical and experimental data allows for expanding the understanding of nettle fibre applications, but also, based on records and in comparison to flax and hemp, for reconstruction of the collection, retting and spinning techniques, which might have been used by European Neolithic communities. Further, the identification methods, such as modified Herzog test, calcium oxalate crystals observation and cross section, are briefly discussed to illustrate the complexity and limitations of bast plants attribution. Additionally, the information about technical properties allows to demonstrate the value of Urtica as a source of fibre, as tensile strength, toughness and drying rate presented results as good, or better than those of flax. These, combined with possibly greater length and longer collection period, could constitute an important input of advantages of Urtica and its presence in the Neolithic. _..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._ _..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._ Pokrzywa zwyczajna (Urtica dioica) jest wieloletnią rośliną powszechnie występującą na terenie całej Europy. Rozwija się równie dobrze na terenach leśnych, łąkowych oraz ruderalnych osiągając wysokość do 2,5m. Jest stosunkowo łatwa do zidentyfikowania dzięki łodydze i charakterystycznym owalnym, ząbkowanym liściom, obficie pokrytymi gruczołowatymi, parzącymi włoskami, powodującymi, w kontakcie ze skórą, bolesną reakcję zapalną. Pomimo, iż jej zastosowania w obrębie medycyny i żywienia są dobrze znane,wykorzystanie pokrzywy do produkcji tekstylnej wydaje się być zapomniane lub zupełnie pomijane. Jej użycie w tej dziedzinie jest zwykle jedynie wspominane w kontekście braków wojennych, szczególnie prób industrializacji jej uprawy w czasie II wojny światowej. Jednak w okresie prehistorycznym, a nawet historycznym, rola pokrzywy i jej znacznie były o wiele większe, do tego stopnia, że starannie utkana w cienką, delikatną, miękką, wysoce połyskliwą tkaninę, jest obecnie czasem określana jako obiekt charakteryzujący epokę brązu. Taki, luksusowy, materiał był odnajdowany w darach pogrzebowych w pochówkach elit tego okresu, m. in. z niezwykle bogato wyposażonego kopca Lushøj w Danii. Jeszcze w okresie średniowiecza wykonana z pokrzywy lekka tkanina była symbolem statusu, zaś jej mniej obrobione, sztywniejsze i szorstkie włókna wykorzystywano do produkcji sznurów i olinowania. Jednakże Urtica dioica wydaje się być pomijana w badaniach nad szeroko rozumianymi tekstyliami okresu neolitu, dlatego celem tej pracy jest przybliżenie jej zastosowań i właściwości oraz, poprzez analogie form pozyskania i przetwórstwa, zaproponowanie pokrzywy jako alternatywy dla głównych źródeł włókienniczych tej epoki, za które przyjmuje się nowo udomowiony i dopiero wprowadzany do uprawy na terenie Europy len, oraz coraz częściej rozpoznawane, a będące w użyciu przynajmniej od mezolitu, łyka drzew. Jest to szczególnie uzasadnione ze względu na rosnącą grupę zabytków identyfikowanych jako tekstylia pokrzywowe, pochodzące często z regionów i kultur, w których uprawa lnu nie była praktykowana, takich jak podmokłe stanowisko w La Draga, w Hiszpanii, na którym odkryto wytworzony z włókien pokrzywy motek sznurka, lub z dna morskiego w pobliżu Skjoldnæs na Ærø, w Danii, skąd pochodzi trójzębna ość rybacka połączona ze sobą pokrzywową nicią. Aby umiejscowić pokrzywę zwyczajną w temacie produkcji tekstylnej, należy przyjrzeć się jej w szerszym kontekście taksonomicznym rodziny Urticaceae, jako że należące do niej rośliny mają długą i obszerną historię zastosowań w tej dziedzinie, a których techniki obróbki mogą być z powodzeniem przełożone na Urticę dioicę. Najlepiej znany jest tu Szczymiel biały (Boehmeria nivea) zwany również Ramią, zaś spokrewniona z nim Boehmeria japonica jest prawdopodobnie jedną z najdawniej wykorzystywanych roślin tkackich, o czym świadczy wykonany z niej fragment materiału z wczesnego okresu Jomon (Japonia), datowany na około 10 tys. lat BC. Podobnie, etnologiczne, historyczne i eksperymentalne badania pozwalają na poszerzenie wiedzy o wykorzystaniu pokrzywy zwyczajnej w produkcji tekstylnej, zwłaszcza poprzez porównanie tej rośliny, oraz metod jej pozyskania i obróbki, z tymi znanymi dla lnu i konopi włóknistych. W pracy dodatkowo przedstawiono metody identyfikacji wykorzystywane w badaniach tekstyliów archeologicznych, takie jak modyfikowany test Herzoga, analiza obecności kryształów szczawianu wapnia oraz kształtu przekroju łodygi, aby pokazać ich możliwości, ale także ich ograniczenia dotyczące prawdopodobieństwa rozpoznania poszczególnych roślin włóknistych, ponieważ istnieje podejrzenie błędnej atrybucji wielu prehistorycznych tkanin. Z tego powodu informacje o technicznych własnościach wyrobów tekstylnych wykonanych z dostępnych w neolicie roślin włóknistych stanowią tutaj konieczne uzupełnienie. Z nielicznych przeprowadzonych badań wynika bowiem, że Urtica dioca ma właściwości podobne, jeśli nie lepsze, do lnu, konopi włóknistych, czy łyka drzew, szczególnie w zakresie wytrzymałości materiału. Razem ze znacznie dłuższym dostępnym okresem zbioru, te cechy sprawiają, iż pokrzywa zwyczajna mogła być atrakcyjnym źródłem włókien dla neolitycznych społeczności europejskich i w tym kontekście powinna być częściej uwzględniana w pracach i badaniach dotyczących tej epoki.Show less
Vlaardingen Culture (3400-2500 BC), a regional late Neolithic group in the western Netherlands, is offering a glimpse into the gradual transition from the Mesolithic to the Neolithic lifestyle,...Show moreVlaardingen Culture (3400-2500 BC), a regional late Neolithic group in the western Netherlands, is offering a glimpse into the gradual transition from the Mesolithic to the Neolithic lifestyle, since its’ subsistence system can be characterised by the ‘broad spectrum economy’. Hence, Vlaardingen culture people were based on agriculture, but still depending on wild resources. This is also reflected in the types of occupation on different ecological zones, expressed with permanent settlements dominating on the coastal dunes and temporary extraction camps mainly on wetlands. However, a distinction between the two is not always possible for Vlaardingen Culture sites, creating the need for further research. As part of the ‘Putting Life into Late Neolithic Houses’ project, this thesis focused on the study of variabilities in hide-working processes, as an argument in the dialogues about occupation duration in Vlaardingen Culture sites. Based on ethnographic accounts, the working hypothesis suggested that traces of initial stages of hide-working would be dominant in temporary extraction camps, while traces of more time-consuming hide-working activities would be present in permanent settlements. Use-wear analysis was used as a method to study this inter-site variability, while engaging with an experimental approach. The potential variability of use-wear traces generated by different hide-working processes was experimentally studied. The experiments were involving fresh hide scraping as an initial stage in hide-working processes, and the understudied dehairing as a more time-consuming activity, representative of permanent settlements. The results of this experiment demonstrated that if certain conditions are met, traces of dry hide scraping can be differentiated from those of dehairing. The material studied for this thesis is originating from the permanent coastal dune site of Den Haag Steynhof, and is concerning 37 flint scrapers selected from zone 5 of the site. Notably, after use-wear analysis was conducted, matching traces were found between the experimental dehairing scrapers and three of the archaeological scrapers, making Steynhof the first Vlaardingen Culture site to have yielded such traces. Furthermore, the results of the analysis showed that time-consuming hide-working activities, including resharpening, were better represented than initial stages of hide-working in Steynhof. This pattern was also observed on other Vlaardingen Culture permanent settlements, while initial stages were dominating in the temporary extraction camp of Hekelingen III, hence confirming the hypothesis. Consequently, it could be used as an argument to infer about the occupation duration of Vlaardingen Culture sites as well as other Neolithic sites of the region, characterised by the ‘broad spectrum economy’. Hence, this study would be applicable when other arguments for the occupation duration of sites remain inconclusive.Show less
The objective of this thesis is to assess whether there is a correlation between the intensification of dairy consumption in Neolithic Anatolia and the effects of the 8.2 ka event.
Figurines are some of the most commonly found artefacts in Neolithic sites across the Near East. These objects have often stimulated colourful interpretations, focussing primarily on stylistic...Show moreFigurines are some of the most commonly found artefacts in Neolithic sites across the Near East. These objects have often stimulated colourful interpretations, focussing primarily on stylistic elements of the anthropomorphic subjects. Such elements, like their perceived femaleness accompanied by voluptuousness, have historically been deemed as directly linked to concerns with fertility and pregnancy, which led to the assumption of the figurines being ritual objects and representations of deities, often labelled as ‘mother- goddesses’. These interpretations essentially generalize the entirety of the figurine assemblages of the Neolithic world, and erase the possibilities of in-depth analysis of these objects. This thesis takes on a different approach, with the belief that a comprehensive analysis that aims to understand these objects should first of all focus on the assemblage of a single context (namely a single site in a given chronological frame), covering the full ‘life-span’ of the figurines within such spatial, chronological, and cultural boundaries, starting from the context of deposition, the process of manufacture and the possible uses. Stylistic observations should only be considered in association to these aspects just mentioned, in the case of possible patterns highlighting the meaning and uses of these objects. A comparative analysis of two or more assemblages could be introduced at a second stage of analysis, within pertinent geographical and chronological boundaries, in order to highlight possible differences and similarities. This approach is what was applied for the research of the figurines of two Neolithic sites of the Lake District in Western Anatolia: Hacilar and Höyücek. These sites, broadly dated to the Late Neolithic period (ca. 6,400 – 6,000 BC), present a significant corpus of figurines, which amount to 72 for Hacilar, and 84 for Höyücek, with the aims of investigating their contexts of deposition and their manufacturing processes in order to highlight possible meaning and uses that were associated to these emblematic objects withi the individual sites and in a broader regional context. The structure of this research will start with an introductory chapter on the Neolithic in the Lake District (Chapter 1), followed by a theoretical chapter that will discuss the history of figurine studies, and will frame the theoretical approach preferred for this research. The datasets of Hacilar and Höyücek will be discussed in Chapter 3 and Chapter 4, which will then be compared in their results in Chapter 5. Finally, the conclusions of this research will be presented in Chapter 6. This research has shown that the figurines of Hacilar and Höyücek had highly dynamic meanings and uses, even within the same sites, which on the one hand shows how inherently flawed the past research has been, and on the other it opens up new avenues of research around aspects like the manufacturing process, which have barely been actively studied in figurines.Show less
Research master thesis | Archaeology (research) (MA/MSc)
closed access
Figurines are a common find on many Near Eastern Neolithic sites. As figurines have been interpreted as the material manifestation of changing perceptions and interactions between people and the...Show moreFigurines are a common find on many Near Eastern Neolithic sites. As figurines have been interpreted as the material manifestation of changing perceptions and interactions between people and the environment, they were deemed instrumental for our understanding of Neolithic societies. Traditionally researched through visual approaches, the focus has predominantly been on anthropomorphic figurines and their perceived femaleness. Through these approaches figurines have been studied as ritual objects, art and symbolic expressions and were linked to concepts of fertility, child-birth and divinity and as such have been also labelled as ‘mother goddesses’. These approaches have been generalising, glossing over variability and offering generalising interpretations. Furthermore, they neglected a large corpus of zoomorphic figurines, more ambiguous shapes and fragmented objects. This thesis takes another approach, positing that, in order to understand how figurines operated in society, we need to understand how figurines were made, used and deposited. Two research aims were formulated. Firstly, to carry out a case-study in which figurines were studied as a cohesive set, with no bias towards a certain type or only complete objects. Second, to ascertain whether or not categories established by visual analysis are recognisable in the archaeological record when looking at figurine materiality and aspects of production, use and deposition. The data set of this thesis consists of the 280 figurines from one part of the excavations at Tell Sabi Abyad (Syria), named Operation III, spanning four levels of habitation and dating from ca. 6455 to 6225 BC. This thesis starts by offering a detailed argumentation detailing the problems inherent in three main ways figurines have been studied, namely: as art, symbolic expressions and ritual objects. Subsequently it offers new avenues for figurine research, highlighting the necessity to engage with the materiality of figurines, combining discursive and non-discursive knowledge and stating that the ‘meaning’ of figurines is not solely constituted by their visual imagery but is also inherent in the processes of production, use and deposition.It continues with an overview of the site of Tell Sabi Abyad; its excavation history, the nature of settlement in Operation III and detailed contextual and depositional information for the figurines used in this case-study. It also takes a broader perspective, contextualising Tell Sabi Abyad in the broader perspective of Late Neolithic Upper Mesopotamia. The next chapter is dedicated to a detailed analysis of the data set starting with establishing a typology. Subsequently, it examines the contextual settings of figurines and related finds, figurine materiality, markings, fragmentation and finally spatial patterning and patterns through time. The analysis showed that figurine making is a highly idiosyncratic practice. There is much variety in the form of figurines within types, Furthermore, types of figurines can be very restricted in time; sometimes almost restricted to a single settlement level. There is variety in figurine use as evidenced by their use wear. Sometimes they seem to have been intentionally cached, but mostly they were discarded after use. This idiosyncrasy has implications that reach beyond the site under study. The over-arching and generalising statements made about figurines do not hold up to close scrutiny at this site, which either makes Tell Abi Abyad an exception, or it means that this type of research will reveal that in fact these generalising statements are false for other sites as well. This will mean we need to drastically alter the current perceptions of how figurines functioned in specific communities and what they ‘meant’ to the people making and using them.Show less
In this thesis I have applied 2 theoretical frameworks to the Vlaardingen Culture: the material engagement theory and the notion of a Neolithic mind-set. The Vlaardingen Culture is an...Show moreIn this thesis I have applied 2 theoretical frameworks to the Vlaardingen Culture: the material engagement theory and the notion of a Neolithic mind-set. The Vlaardingen Culture is an archaeological culture that takes part in the Neolithisation process of the Netherlands, which can be summarized as the transformation into the Neolithic period. I have chosen to combine the two mentioned theoretical frameworks in order to analyse the different world-views of the Mesolithic and the Neolithic. The Vlaardingen period (3400-2500 BCE) is considered to be an intermediate phase in the Neolithisation period, where people are neither fully Mesolithic or Neolithic. This group is characterized by the fact that their food economy and their degree sedentism share traits of a Mesolithic and a Neolithic way of life.Show less
This thesis endeavoured to investigate whether ardmarks could be used as a proxy for field systems in prehistoric archaeology. It considered the assumption that the crystallization of field...Show moreThis thesis endeavoured to investigate whether ardmarks could be used as a proxy for field systems in prehistoric archaeology. It considered the assumption that the crystallization of field structure occurred in the Middle Bronze Age. To discover whether this was the case, this thesis tried to investigate whether social organization was also evident in the earlier field systems. The main question was how did social organization change from the Middle Neolithic to the Early Iron Age? To answer this, this thesis used ardmarks as a proxy for field systems. One of the main uses of ardmarks in current archaeological debate is to provide evidence for intensification. This thesis instead looked at the demarcations, organization of ardmarks, field systems, and how the ardmarks are currently documented to try to discover changes in field systems in prehistory. This study included 28 case studies ranging from the Middle Neolithic to the Early Iron Age. Two types of evidence were found that describe a change in social organization and therefore tenural function of fields in different phases of the prehistory. The first was the layout of the fields in the landscape and the second was the intensification of these fields. The Late Neolithic and the Early Bronze Age fields were set on the perimeters of landscape features; slope and tops of dunes were important focal points for the organization of these fields. The ardmarks show a pattern of parallel and perpendicular furrows to the slope. This emphasizes the natural landscape as a focal point for these fields and non-demarcated fields. Due to the local changes in natural landscape features, one could argue that these fields were set for the organization of the local settlement rather than a larger inter-organizational structure. However, in the Middle Bronze Age a shift of the layout of fields towards the lower places within the local landscape can be seen. Moreover, an increasing amount of enclosures in the form of ditch systems marks that this shift towards the lower lying areas was deliberate. However, in many case studies it is evident that the natural landscape was still influenced the layout of these fields. It is only in the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age that the local relief of the landscape is disregarded for the structure of field systems. This is evident in the more dominant structuring of fields systems for inter-organizational purposes. However, this indicates that tenure was practiced in the Late Neolithic in a more local settlement scale, and that from the Middle Bronze Age it changed towards a larger organization than that of a single settlement organizational perspective. Therefore, we see a clear change in the use of fields in social organization on different landscape levels. In the end, this thesis showed that the organization of field systems changes considerably in chronology but also regionally. However, one should question if these field systems are a direct relation to tenure and chiefdoms, or rather changes in techniques and social organizational views of the land.Show less
This thesis focusses mainly on Neolithic ornaments made of jet and seeks to interpret these finds by addressing two objectives. The first objective of this thesis is concerned with characterizing...Show moreThis thesis focusses mainly on Neolithic ornaments made of jet and seeks to interpret these finds by addressing two objectives. The first objective of this thesis is concerned with characterizing the black shiny ornaments of Schipluiden and Ypenburg which have preliminarily been termed jets and to further investigate the possibilities of provenance studies for Dutch Neolithic jet ornaments with the use of XRF. The second objective of this thesis is to investigate the possibility of distinguishing between an intentional polish and use-wear related shine on the basis of macroscopic analysis. For this purpose a series of experiments has been designed involving experimentally made ornamental beads and a rock tumbler. An XRF distinction shows that the finished ornaments of Ypenburg are possibly all true Upper Lias jets. A large amount of the objects under investigation are probably not, however, including all finished ornaments from Schipluiden. It has proven possible to distinguish between an intentional polish and a use-wear related shine. This experiment, although insightful, is incomplete as it lacks the evidence to conclusively distinguish an intentional polish from a use-wear related shine. Similar experiments could be set up for future research with longer tumbling durations and allow the use of different polish materials.Show less
This thesis presents a study of the Neolithic assemblage of tools and implements from the megalithic temple complex of Tarxien, Malta. This complex was built and used by a Neolithic society between...Show moreThis thesis presents a study of the Neolithic assemblage of tools and implements from the megalithic temple complex of Tarxien, Malta. This complex was built and used by a Neolithic society between 3600-2400 BC. The Maltese archipelago boasts over 30 similar megalithic complexes, spread across the islands. For over a century, these megalith complexes have been intensively studied, but while there is a general consensus that these so-called temples held ritual or religious functions, many contradicting hypotheses about the origin of the complexes and their societal significance have been formulated by various scholars. These theories have been discussed to create a referential framework for this thesis and to emphasise how little attention has been paid to Neolithic tools and implements in earlier studies. In order to make a contribution to this debate, this study concentrated on this neglected group of artefacts: the Neolithic tools and implements from Tarxien. By means of a systematic analysis of these tools and implements this thesis was able to identify a number of activity patterns that might have played a role inside Tarxien. Based on the results achieved in the process of this thesis, it can be claimed that the temples did not only fulfill ritual and/or religious purposes, but a number of other activities can be associated with the Temple complex. Various activities, such as preparing food and the production of materials and other goods have been present at the site and it seems very likely that the complex was inhabited by a (small) group of people. Furthermore, based on the archaeological evidence examined by this study, it seems possible that the complex held a central function concerning the storage and (re)distribution of food (and/or other goods).Show less
This MA thesis is a study into the assemblage of bone tools from the Late Neolithic period of Tell Sabi Abyad, specifically the tools that come from the Operation III area. Only those objects that...Show moreThis MA thesis is a study into the assemblage of bone tools from the Late Neolithic period of Tell Sabi Abyad, specifically the tools that come from the Operation III area. Only those objects that can be seen as tools or implements have been the subject of the research. In total this amounts to an assemblage of 1081 objects. Of these objects this study investigates which types are present, the numbers in which they occur, and the manner of distribution across the area. The first step is the forming of a typology that is easy to understand for anyone working with the bone tool material from Tell Sabi Abyad yet retains enough detail to make clear distinctions in the distribution of the different objects. The framework of the typology is based on several different ways in which researchers have looked at bone tool assemblages; from the very detailed work of J. Schibler to the more basic idea of expedient versus time-invested tools as first proposed by A.T. Clason. A quantitative analysis is then given, where the different typological classifications and the arguments underlying them are mentioned in detail. Secondly, the implement distribution and contexts per typological entity is investigated. This results in the identification of what can be seen as two main centres within the distribution of the Operation III area. Whether these can be counted as centres of activity is not certain. The available data on the contexts gives an ambiguous view and specific activity localities could not be recognized. From the study it becomes clear that Tell Sabi Abyad shows an assemblage comparable to other Neolithic sites in the Near East and other regions. The typology as it is set up fits well within the limits of the typologies of other sites and, as such, is recognizable for those working on similar studies. This counts both for Tell Sabi Abyad as for other sites. Future work will in all likelihood give rise to reasons for alteration of the current typology but it is believed that the main body will remain upright.Show less
At De Heidekampweg In Stein, Limburg, The Netherlands, an excavation was performed which yielded remains from both the Neolithic and the late Iron Age. For the Neolithic Bandkeramik (LBK) culture,...Show moreAt De Heidekampweg In Stein, Limburg, The Netherlands, an excavation was performed which yielded remains from both the Neolithic and the late Iron Age. For the Neolithic Bandkeramik (LBK) culture, some special finds were present, which led to a new theory for people living on the borders of the loess. Based on the result of this thesis and current other research, autumn sowing was more likely to have been practiced in Stein. The remains of the late Iron Age showed a large range of low-growing weed species. These are found when crops are reaped very low on the stalk, which was seen as a possible indication for the importance of straw, although we have found no direct evidence for this. Also, almost no pulses were found, which seemed to have been a more general trend in late Iron Age in the surroundings as well. In both periods, it is clear from the weed species found that the soil quality of the fields that were harvested was less than optimal as seen by the presence of acidophilous plants. Because the amount of samples taken in the excavation was (too) little, certain statistical methods could not be employed. For future research, it would be interesting to look at the zoological remains of the site as well to see whether the results agree with this research.Show less
