This thesis will look at the prevalence of cam-type femoroacetabular impingement among three medieval and post-medieval populations from the Netherlands in order to identify a pattern or trend in...Show moreThis thesis will look at the prevalence of cam-type femoroacetabular impingement among three medieval and post-medieval populations from the Netherlands in order to identify a pattern or trend in the said prevalence. These could in turn be linked to biological sex, environment and historical period and offer new insights in the lifestyle, in particular physical activity, of historical populations from the Netherlands. The results of this thesis could in turn also contribute to a better understanding of femoroacetabular impingement in the modern age. The trend that the femoral heads of the males in this sample are significantly less spherical than in females may be related to a sex-based labour division. Males would have done the bulk of the heavy work which put more strain on their lower limbs. The most important takeaway from this thesis is that femoroacetabular impingement, in particular cam-type, is not a new disorder. It is present in a wide range of populations from different environments and historical periods. The activity levels and physical load on the proximal femur of modern professional athletes may be comparable to ancient populations who were involved in physically demanding professions daily. The environment and diet might play a larger role in all of this than anticipated.Show less
The many ceremonial and prestigious paraphernalia in both completed and semimanufactured states encountered at Tingi Holo have led researchers to conclude that the inhabitants were heavily involved...Show moreThe many ceremonial and prestigious paraphernalia in both completed and semimanufactured states encountered at Tingi Holo have led researchers to conclude that the inhabitants were heavily involved in crafting (Versteeg 2003). To research if this can also be observed in the part of the skeletal population of Tingi Holo that was excavated in 1963 by Geijskes, entheseal development, osteoarthritis and spondylosis have been studied in this thesis. A selection of studied skeletal elements has been made based on observations done by Becker (2016) on a female craftswomen from the Ch’iji Jawita Site in Tiwanaku, Bolivia. Following Sofaer (2006), the theoretical framework employed in this research is that of ‘the body as material culture’. This theory bridges the Cartesian divide by considering the bones of the human body as a material with a specific characteristic, which is it’s plasticity. This plasticity allows the bones to react to both natural influences, such as age, sex and disease, as well as social influences such as food consumption and activity. It is particularly applicable to this research for it acknowledges the unique way in which humans both shape and are shaped by the creation of their own material culture. To conceptualize the range of crafting activities and the divide of labour between men and women and old and young people, ethnographic and historic sources have been employed. Among the studied communities are the Maroni River Caribs of Suriname, the Barama River Caribs of British Guiana, the Wayana of French Guiana, the Waiwai of northern Brazil and British Guyana and the Xingū of central Brazil. Through their habits regarding crafting, some general trends have been inferred. Although men and women alike craft with all available materials, there is a distinction in the type of objects both are allowed to make. This becomes particularly clear when looking at ceremonial and prestige artefacts, which almost are always done by men. Old age was not observed to increase the status of craftspersons within the studied societies. Combining the results of the ethnographic and osteological data allowed for a meaningful conclusion about the activities of the Tingi Holo population. In accordance with the ethnography, men showed indications of being more involvedShow less
Nutritional and socio-economic status are often considered as being closely related. In skeletal collections, these forms of status are studied using non-specific stress indicators. This research...Show moreNutritional and socio-economic status are often considered as being closely related. In skeletal collections, these forms of status are studied using non-specific stress indicators. This research focusses on one nutritional status. Pelvic inlet morphology is repeatedly suggested to be a good proxy for nutritional status, but this never has been systematically analysed. This thesis examines pelvic inlet morphology together with other indicators, namely cribra orbitalia and maximum femoral length for two samples of different socio-economic status. This to verify the usefulness of the shape of the pelvic inlet as a nutritional status indicator. This research shows that the relationships between the different indicators are not significant, that they differ between subsamples and that they do not all follow the expected pattern. The correlations between pelvic morphology and cribra orbitalia, and between pelvic morphology and maximal femoral length, suggest that if pelvic morphology is influenced by periods of stress, it results of different causes of stress or different periods of stress than the other indicators, since most correlations are quite low and some of them contradict each other within subsamples. Furthermore, sex is found to influence individual measurements of the pelvis, but it has no real effect on the pelvic inlet index. Lastly, the individuals from Arnhem seem to have a slightly lower nutritional status than those from Zwolle, but differences are not pronounced. Even though the results are not significant and confounding factors are numerous, this is the first study that explores pelvic measurements in relation to nutrition for the Northern Europe and the first to provide pelvic data for Dutch samples.Show less
Iron Age cremation graveyards are a relatively rare phenomenon in the Netherlands and there is a general lack of understanding of demographic data based on osteological analyses of these graveyards...Show moreIron Age cremation graveyards are a relatively rare phenomenon in the Netherlands and there is a general lack of understanding of demographic data based on osteological analyses of these graveyards. Cremation analysis of these graveyards is not done on a consistent basis and osteological information is generally lacking. In the research, the Middle to Late Iron Age graveyard from Panningen-Loo (Netherlands) has been analysed and compared to other graveyard within the Meuse-Demer-Scheldt (MDS) region in the southern Netherlands. Furthermore, a GIS-analysis has been carried out to analyse locations of graves, grave types and demographics within the graveyard. The osteological analysis was carried out using standard macroscopic methods of analysis for cremated remains. With the help of a literature study and a GIS-analysis, comparisons in and between graveyards have been made. Several statistical calculations were ran to test the significance of weight and fragmentation between demographics and grave types. In total, 31 graves were found which contained 33 individuals. Grave types following the scheme of Hiddink (2003) were proposed: sixteen graves were of type A. Ten were of type B. Seven graves were of type C. The grave types also differed in other terms: weight, fragmentation and location were different for the proposed grave types. The weight of the graves varied between 0,1 to 3241 grams, with an average of 611 grams. The graveyard contained three adult females, three possible females, two indeterminate adults, one possible male, five adult males and six subadults. Fragmentation of the remains was high. Four individuals were found with no or marginal amounts of cranial fragments. In comparison to other graveyards within the MDS area, several graveyards match Panningen-Loo in multiple osteological and archaeological aspects. Panningen Stokx, Weert Laarveld and Weert Molenakkerdreef are all highly matching in most aspects. By carrying out this study, progress had been made in aiding the understanding of Iron Age graveyards and indicating the usefulness of a complete osteological analysis of cremated remains.Show less
This study examines a subadult skeletal sample from the period of AD 1500-1850, excavated from the St. Catherine’s church cemetery in Eindhoven, the Netherlands. The study’s main research question...Show moreThis study examines a subadult skeletal sample from the period of AD 1500-1850, excavated from the St. Catherine’s church cemetery in Eindhoven, the Netherlands. The study’s main research question is whether signs of physiological stress are visible in the subadult remains in Eindhoven, and what these signs may tell us about the health of the population during the sixteenth to nineteenth centuries. The following nonspecific stress markers are examined: dental enamel hypoplasia, Harris lines, cribra orbitalia, porotic hyperostosis, and the cortical index of the humerus and tibia. It is assessed whether and how stress factors relate to each other, as well as whether a difference exists between the two time periods examined (1600-1650 AD, and 1650-1850 AD). For all stress markers, it is also examined whether or not a difference in prevalence per age or per sex (based on ancient DNA results) is present. None of the stress marker prevalences differed significantly between the sexes. There were also no significant differences between the two examined periods, which suggests sociocultural changes between these periods did not affect stress patterns. Infants are mostly unaffected by stress markers. For the Eindhoven population, the age within childhood at which signs of stress first seem to occur is around three to four years. However, it is possible that stress is best visible in this age group, and not necessarily that this age group is more susceptible to stress than others. Overall, most stress markers show a moderate to high prevalence in Eindhoven. Only the prevalence of porotic hyperostosis is quite low. The fact that many individuals showed signs of cribra orbitalia but not of porotic hyperostosis, implies that they either have a different etiology, or that porotic hyperostosis develops in later stages than cribra orbitalia. The correlation between stress markers was different than expected; if all reflect physiological stress then one might expect the stress markers to be strongly correlated. However, only the presence of dental enamel hypoplasia and Harris lines were correlated, yet the lines themselves do not correlate, making it unlikely that they are indicative of the same stress event. The reason that stress markers are not correlated could be due to their different etiologies or different age-related propensities to form, or because one, or several, of the stress markers do not in fact reflect physiological stress. The cortical index pattern of individuals with Harris lines may imply that Harris line formation is in fact a normal part of bone growth. The high prevalence of most stress markers suggests that the population suffered from stress caused by malnourishment or disease, and the presence of these stress markers also indicates survivorship. More research is needed to better understand the health of the population of Eindhoven. Additionally, this research has show that much is still unknown about the relationships between the different stress markers.Show less
The research in this thesis is part of an archaeological study about the excavation of the old graveyard around the St. Plechelmus Basilica in Oldenzaal, The Netherlands. Between 2011 and 2013,...Show moreThe research in this thesis is part of an archaeological study about the excavation of the old graveyard around the St. Plechelmus Basilica in Oldenzaal, The Netherlands. Between 2011 and 2013, 2750 individuals were exhumed from this graveyard, and two atypical mass graves were encountered. A selection of 200 skeletons divided over five matrices , including the individuals from the mass graves, has been studied with advanced scientific methods, including ancient DNA by Forensic Laboratory for DNA Research, Leiden University Medical Center. The meticulously conducted DNA research has resulted in generally very good quality DNA with no indications of contamination and with genetic profiles suitable for genetic kinship testing. Statistical analyses were carried out on the autosomal, Y-chromosomal and mitochondrial DNA data to test for kinship relationships, which resulted in indications of various genetic relationships. This thesis focuses on skeletons from matrix D, including one of the mass graves, consisting of 48 individuals. The DNA research demonstrates no genetic kinship for the six individuals in the mass grave. There were clear indications for kinship for five pairs of individuals from the non-mass grave area of matrix D. This thesis demonstrates the successful use of ancient DNA analyses for reconstructing kinship relationships in an archaeological context.Show less
Humans are adapters. We not only adapt ourselves to the environment, more often than not we adapt the environment itself to suit our needs, our wishes, and our ideas. This urge to change does not...Show moreHumans are adapters. We not only adapt ourselves to the environment, more often than not we adapt the environment itself to suit our needs, our wishes, and our ideas. This urge to change does not stop with the environment. The human body itself is often used as a canvas where we express who we are, where we express our identity. This thesis discussed one type of such expression of identity: artificial cranial modification (often abbreviated as "ACM"). As the modification can only be done successfully on individuals younger than three years old, it does not express individual identity but rather the group identity the individual's parents belonged to. This makes cranial modification an interesting field of research, which can tell archaeologists many things about past populations. The two populations studied in this thesis originate from the Bolivian Andes; an area with a high percentage of modified crania but a low percentage of research. The aim of this work is thus to add to the information of cranial modification in the Bolivian Andes, which was done through the study of 60 mostly Tiwanaku-period (500 - 1000 CE) crania from two different Andean regions: the Altiplano, and the Cochabamba valles. The Cochabamba valles, although emulating the Tiwanaku culture, remained very much independent, a fact which is confirmed in the results of this thesis. The most striking difference turned out to be the influence of sex on modification presence, which was found to be statistically significant in the valles sample and not in the Altiplano crania. Other differences were found as well: annular modification is much more frequent in the Altiplano, with tabular being more popular in the valles. The annular types are mostly cylindrical in the valles whereas the conical variant is more common in the Altiplano. Occipitally curved tabular modifications only occur in the Altiplano, with the lambdoidally flattened variant being most common. Frontally curved tabular modifications, then, only occur in the valles. Lastly, erect modifications occurred relatively more in the Altiplano sample, where it made up half of the tabular subtypes, than in the valles. Osteological effects of ACM on the cranium were studied as well. These did not indicate regional results, showing that, all cultural differences aside, the populations were not too different from each other. The non-metric traits that seemed to be influenced by cranial modification in the sample are the prevalence of the left infraorbital foramen, right pterygo-spinous bridge and left tympanic dehiscence, as well as the metopic suture retention. The results show that although the populations lived near, and were in contact with, each other, regional cultural differences do exist. Extrapolating findings of the Altiplano's Tiwanaku culture to the rest of the Bolivian Andes is thus not correct, something that should be kept in mind for future (much needed) research in the area. This thesis was made possible by the archaeological museum INIAM of the Universidad Mayor de San Simón in Cochabamba and the zooarchaeological laboratory from the Universidad Mayor de San Andres in La Paz, which granted access to their collections.Show less
The mandible is one of the many structures of the human skeleton that can be characterized by large amounts of inter(between)-individual morphological variation. The primary aim of this thesis is...Show moreThe mandible is one of the many structures of the human skeleton that can be characterized by large amounts of inter(between)-individual morphological variation. The primary aim of this thesis is to provide the one of the first large-scale systematic investigations upon which the relationship between mandibular morphological variation and speech production capabilities and language change can be explored, a subject that has seen little previous research. In order to accurately capture the shape and size of the human mandible, three-dimensional geometric morphometrics are used on adults (18-49 years of age) from two Dutch archaeological sites: Alkmaar (AD 1484-1574, n= 37) and Middenbeemster (AD 1829-1866, n= 51). The results indicate that there is a large amount of overlap of shape variation between individuals and that the variation within the groups is quite large compared to the variation between groups. Overall, the mandibles belonging to individuals from Alkmaar are significantly larger while mandibles from Middenbeemster are smaller on average. The average male mandible from Alkmaar has a superiorly-posteriorly shifted anterior portion of the corpus. The male individuals from Middenbeemster show less antero-posterior curvature in the anterior part of the corpus and slightly more projecting chins. The females show no significant differences between the sites. Moreover, the sample from Middenbeemster shows sexual dimorphism which is dominated by differences in size. The differences are mainly located in the corpus and probably caused by dissimilarities in the mandibular symphysis in terms of robusticity. For the individuals from Alkmaar, there is no significant dimorphism in the shape captured by the landmarks presented here, except at the ramus, and specifically at the gonial angles. Therefore, the expression of sexual dimorphism shifts between these sites. These results are probably linked to the general softening of the diet that occurred between these time-periods due to processing improvements and different dietary components due to the Industrial Revolution, but more research on this subject is needed. This thesis contributes to our understanding of shape variation and sexual dimorphism in the mandible. It has shown that sexual dimorphism has changed over a small period of time in a geographical area in North Holland and represents the first time that three-dimensional geometric morphometrics have been applied to human skeletal remains in the Netherlands. It also provides one of the first steps upon which researchers can begin to investigate the potential role of mandibular morphology on variation in language and speech production. While unsuccessful in finding a direct correlation between language and mandibular morphology, this thesis demonstrates the complexity of this issue as it appears difficult to separate the effect of language from other, more prominent factors such as diet, mastication and tooth status. These factors need to be overcome before future research can tackle questions regarding language change and its relationship with mandibular morphology. Thus, this thesis will serve as one of the stepping stones that can be used to perform cutting-edge research on this complex but interesting subject.Show less
Skeletal and dental growth and development is investigated in 39 perinate and infant skeletons aged between 32 weeks gestation to 42 weeks after birth in order to determine the accuracy of three...Show moreSkeletal and dental growth and development is investigated in 39 perinate and infant skeletons aged between 32 weeks gestation to 42 weeks after birth in order to determine the accuracy of three ageing methods and to assess possible periods of increased stress in the sample. The skeletal remains belong to a recently excavated, partly documented cemetery, from Middenbeemster, a rural village in the Netherlands, dating mainly to the nineteenth century. Three ageing methods were chosen to be evaluated, the accuracy of which had not been systematically investigated: 1) the deciduous Demirjian stages by Liversidge and Molleson (2004); 2) the dental height regression equations by Liversidge and colleagues (1993), and; 3) skeletal age estimation using 26 measurements form 18 different bones utilising six different standards (Black and Scheuer 1996; Fazekas and Kósa 1978; Maresh 1955; Molleson and Cox 1993; Saunders et al. 1993; Scheuer and McLaughlin-Black 1994). Accuracy of the methods is tested on a subsample of ten individuals for whom age at death is known from the Beemster district archives, and the results are further evaluated using the entire sample. Results from individuals of known age indicate high levels of accuracy for skeletal age and dental height with mean difference to chronological age of only -0.4 and +0.6 weeks, respectively. The deciduous developmental stages significantly overestimate chronological age by +5.5 weeks. These observed trends are confirmed in the entire sample were age was compared to the sample mean. In neonatal remains, skeletal age is most accurate regardless the standards used, but for post-neonates only the Maresh (1955) standard provides accurate results (+1.9 weeks). Dental developmental stages are more accurate in individuals less than two months (+2.4 weeks), increasing in older individuals to +5.2 weeks. Dental height gave an outstanding performance with consistent high levels of accuracy in neonatal (+1.6 weeks) and post-neonatal remains (+0.15 weeks), making it the preferred method for age estimation in the infant category. The mortality pattern followed a normal declining curve with the greatest percentage of individuals dying during the neonatal period. Skeletal development lagged behind dental development by about one month in almost 70% of the individuals, showing a trend of an increasing amount of delay with age. But differences in age between skeletal and dental development were not unambiguously pointing to a stress induced delay and more research is needed to clarify the observed trends. This thesis provides new information on the accuracy of dental and skeletal ageing methods of infant remains and should guide our application of these methods in future research of north-west European skeletal samples.Show less
Determining the sex of subadults is seen as important for osteology and social studies. Within osteology several methods exist to determine the sex of subadults, but all these methods are under...Show moreDetermining the sex of subadults is seen as important for osteology and social studies. Within osteology several methods exist to determine the sex of subadults, but all these methods are under discussion. Often, the researchers who created the methods had high accuracies, but when it was later on retested by other researchers, the accuracy rates dropped. Within this research twelve non-metric methods were tested on known-sex subadults from Middenbeemster (n = 43). The twelve non-metric methods of this research are the elevation of the auricular surface, the greater sciatic notch angle, the greater sciatic notch depth, the arch criterion, the iliac crest, the protrusion of the chin, the anterior dental arcade, the eversion of the gonion region, the complete mandible, the mentum, the mandibular angle and the orbital morphology. The accuracy rates for each method were calculated and in addition separate accuracy rates were obtained for the pelvis, the skull and the overall skeleton. All the obtained accuracy rates were low. In addition, the statistical analyses indicate that the methods cannot be used to determine the sex of subadults. These low accuracy rates might be explained through with several factors. A population difference between the Middenbeemster sample and the sample of the other researchers might explain the low accuracy rate. In addition, some researchers have proved that there is less sexual dimorphism in Dutch populations than in other populations. Disease and malnutrition can also cause low accuracy rates. And inter- and intraobserver error can also cause low accuracy rates. In addition, this research was limited by a small sample and a overrepresentation of females within the sample. A division in five age groups made clear that there might be several methods that are age-related and not sex-related. It seems that the twelve non-metric method cannot be used to determine the sex of subadults, but more research is needed to get a better understanding of these methods.Show less
Body mass increases when nutritional status increases and decreases when there is a lack of essential nutrients. Bone is a dynamic organ that continuously undergoes a process involving bone...Show moreBody mass increases when nutritional status increases and decreases when there is a lack of essential nutrients. Bone is a dynamic organ that continuously undergoes a process involving bone absorption and formation. Previous research has focused on average body mass estimations or pathological responses to body mass extremes. However, limited research has been done towards body mass estimation accuracy when body mass falls under an extreme. In the summer of 2011, the laboratory for human osteoarchaeology and the Dutch archaeological company Hollandia excavated a cemetery in Middenbeemster, The Netherlands. This skeletal population is unique since the cemetery could be linked to detailed historical information, including age, sex, and cause of death. The aim of this study was to study the prevalence of body mass extremes in the 19th century skeletal population. Furthermore, it has been studied whether the age related features experience influence from body mass and whether pathological lesions known to be associated with body mass have a correlation with body mass in the Middenbeemster skeletal population as well. Body mass estimations have been made with both the femoral head diameter and stature-bi-iliac breadth (STBIB). The age estimations, to assess the influence of body mass on age related features, have been made with both pubic symphyseal morphology and auricular surface morphology. The age estimations were compared to the true age at death, which were available from historical data. Special care has been taken in interpreting the results, because confounding factors may have caused bias. It appeared that the skeletal population of Middenbeemster was composed of primarily normal and overweight individuals, with a significant difference among males and females. Furthermore, there has not been a significant influence of body mass on age related features in this skeletal sample. The correlation of pathological lesions known to be associated with body mass was not significantly correlated with body mass in this skeletal sample. Together with other research, this study will be part of the enormously detailed historical framework of the population of 19th century Middenbeemster.Show less
It is generally known that the Dutch are tall. However, this has not always been the case. In 2005 Maat published an article tracing back trends in average Dutch male stature. In this article data...Show moreIt is generally known that the Dutch are tall. However, this has not always been the case. In 2005 Maat published an article tracing back trends in average Dutch male stature. In this article data from 21 different samples were included, of which only one came from a rural population. This study introduces a second rural population into the mix. The stature of both the males and females of Klaaskinderkerke is assessed and compared to the available material. In addition the different stature estimation methods are compared to each other. The material consists of 37 individuals excavated in 1959 at the site of the cemetery of the former village Klaaskinderkerke. The cemetery roughly dates to 1100 to 1600 and was hit repeatedly by floods. Sex was estimated, as well as age and stature. There were more males than females (27 males, 9 females, 1 indeterminate), which is difficult to explain. Probably the damage caused by the floods and the excavation technique affected the male-female distribution. The stature estimation method published by Breitinger (1937) yielded significantly different results from the method published by Ousley (1995). Breitinger (1937) differed significantly from all methods where the higher statures were concerned. In the female methods, no significant different results were found. The average stature from the males from Klaaskinderkerke was slightly higher than the average statures from the other sites, except for the site of Maastricht and Scheemde, which both delivered exceptionally tall men. This can be explained by the social background of both populations. When the statures of Klaaskinderkerke were separated based on burial location (inside versus outside church), it was found that these two groups differed significantly in average stature. The average stature from the men within the church compared well to the men from Maastricht and Scheemda, while the average stature from the men outside the church compared well to the men from the only other rural site, Hellevoetsluis.Show less
