In the 1980s, archaeological studies near the village of Valkenburg, South-Holland, unearthed the skeletal remains of individuals buried at the Valkenburg-Marktveld cemetery during the Roman period...Show moreIn the 1980s, archaeological studies near the village of Valkenburg, South-Holland, unearthed the skeletal remains of individuals buried at the Valkenburg-Marktveld cemetery during the Roman period. Part of multiple Roman fortifications along the Limes dating from 40 A.D. onwards, the cemetery was likely used as a burial ground for inhabitants of the Valkenburg fort or nearby vicus, a civilian settlement. The cemetery comprised at least 250 cremated individuals as well as 47 inhumations, which is a striking find that contradicts the common Roman practice of cremation. Due to these inhumated skeletal remains, the site provides an unique opportunity to employ osteoarchaeological analysis to reconstruct the lives of individuals that lived in the Roman Frontier region. This thesis utilizes cross-sectional geometry and bilateral asymmetry analysis to infer activity patterns among individuals at the Valkenburg-Marktveld cemetery, as current research on the differences in bone geometry between different demographic groups within Roman communities in the Lower Rhine area is limited. The study further investigates the factors and potential activity patterns that might influence those variations, such as biological age and sex. To do so, it builds on the initial osteoarchaeological study conducted by Lonnée and Maat (1998), who reported the estimated sex and age-at-death of each individual. Following this, each relevant bone in the upper and lower limbs was measured on various points to generate the indices for each point of measurement, as well as calculate the percentage directional asymmetry (DA%) and absolute asymmetry (AA%). The resulting values were then compared statistically between the biological sexes and age-at-death categories. While statistical significance is limited, the interpretation of data highlights the potential of these analyses in inferring activity patterns. Results from the analysis indicate that males tend to display more robust and symmetric upper and lower limbs than females, which are likely attributable to biological factors or a wider range of activities in males. Age-at-death categories exhibited inconsistencies with patterns described in other study, which is possibly due to natural variation or the limited preservation and availability of the skeletal material. Despite the limited number of individuals that could be examined, this thesis contributes valuable insights into the application of cross-sectional geometry and bilateral asymmetry analysis in osteoarchaeological studies, complementing historical data and broadening our understanding of activities in Roman frontier regions.Show less
In this thesis, the potential of archaeological predictive modelling within England’s Archaeological Heritage Management (AHM) system is assessed through the case study of Roman-age Hertfordshire,...Show moreIn this thesis, the potential of archaeological predictive modelling within England’s Archaeological Heritage Management (AHM) system is assessed through the case study of Roman-age Hertfordshire, in south-east England. The case study involves the creation of an archaeological predictive model from the bottom-up, using only open-access data. An assessment is also made on the quality of the open-access digital infrastructure within England, as well as on the knowledge that can be gained from the creation and product of the model. A detailed description of the collected data provides information about the environment (elevation, soil, geology, hydrogeology and river system), the social aspects of the landscape (Roman road network and towns) in addition to the modern-day factors which impact planning permissions (land-use, modern roads, protected areas and scheduled monuments). The quality of the environmental data is evaluated for its applicability to the Roman landscape in Hertfordshire. Archaeological site data (n = 4358), provided by the Archaeological Data Service (ADS), is categorised into site types (settlements, economic, ritual, military, water sources and miscellaneous). The representability of the archaeological data is evaluated for potential observational biases. The Roman Hertfordshire predictive model is created using deductive techniques (weighted multi-criteria analysis) and an inductive technique (site density). The final product predicts five areas of archaeological potential within Roman Hertfordshire, ranging from ‘Very High’ to ‘Very Low’. The model is evaluated for its predictive abilities by an unused testing sample of archaeological sites. The accuracy and precision of the model’s predictions are tested using Kvamme’s Gain equation, producing a high-yielding score of 0.72. The applications of the Roman Hertfordshire predictive model are discussed in the context of its uses within the modern development process. Proximity-based analysis of the different site types is explored in regards to water sources, Roman roads and Verulamium (St. Albans). The elevation of different site types are also analysed.Show less
In this thesis, the zooarchaeological assemblages from the Tabacalera site are compared with each other and changes in animal husbandry strategies and diet are studied. Afterward they are also...Show moreIn this thesis, the zooarchaeological assemblages from the Tabacalera site are compared with each other and changes in animal husbandry strategies and diet are studied. Afterward they are also compared to other data from the Iberian Peninsula known for the periods in question. These assemblage date to the Late Roman Period (5th-6th centuries) and the Middle Ages (8th to 16th, but mainly 14th to 16th). The Late Roman assemblage exists of carcasses dumped after a catastrophic event and the medieval assemblage was accumulated over de course of the centuries. These differences in accumulation made it hard to compare the two assemblages. To asses the possible changes a plethora of methods was used: species ratios, element distribution, mortality profiles, osteometric analysis and the distribution of taphonomic marks. In addition to the mammal fragments these methods were used on, species distribution is also discussed for the other animal groups, such as birds. All in all, this led to the following conclusions. Firstly, due to the different taphonomy and accumulation the two assemblages can barely be compared when animal husbandry and diet is considered. Some conclusions, however are possible. Secondly, cattle were the animals that were produced at the site. The focus of production lay on a mix of meat and secondary products. A part of the cattle was used for milk, ploughing and traction, and not consumed until old age and a part was slaughtered for meat and likely traded to a high-status or urban site in the area. Pig and sheep/goats were animals consumed at the site, but not produced or traded. The only product of pig was meat and sheep/goats were kept for mixed production of both wool and meat. Other species formed a supplement to this diet. Mainly these are chicken and turkey. The presence of turkey is special due to its only recent introduction to the country. Other animal groups still need to be studied. The medieval assemblage fits with the characteristics of a rural Christian site near a high-status or urban settlement during the High Middle Ages in Northern Spain. The changes that could be determined between the Roman and medieval assemblages were the change in socio economic status from high-status Roman to rural medieval. This was also attested by historical sources. There was also a change in primary consumption animal and the breed improvement of cattle known in the area from the Roman period ceased in the Middle Ages, resulting in a decrease in cattle size. The size of the sheep (that were already small during the Roman period) stayed the same during the Middle Ages. This resulted in the conclusion that no breed improvement took place 71 and that the mixed production known for the Roman period stayed the same in the Middle Ages. In conclusion, between the Late Roman period and the (High) Middle Ages the site underwent many changes with little continuity between the periods. These changes envelope both taphonomical and husbandry changes.Show less
The subject of this thesis is the changes in the Nabataean mortuary practice that take place under the Roman influence in the period from the first century BC up until the start of the second...Show moreThe subject of this thesis is the changes in the Nabataean mortuary practice that take place under the Roman influence in the period from the first century BC up until the start of the second century AD. The main research question is: how did the Nabataean mortuary practices change in the Nabataean from the first century BC to the start of the second century AD under Roman influence? This question will be answered at the hand of two sub questions which are focussed on the creation of a model of the Roman funerary practices as seen in the Egyptian sites Alexandria, Berenike and Tuna el-Gebel and the Syrian sites Dura-Europos, Palmyra and Tyre and a model of the Nabataean sepulchral methods created by looking at seven Nabataean sites: Bir Madkhur near Petra, Dumat near Ḥegra, Ḥegra at the southern border of the kingdom, Humayma, the Nabataean capital Petra, Umm al-Jimāl located in the north of the kingdom and Wadi Ramm. Two theoretical themes are used as the leitmotif for this thesis: the theory behind the mortuary practices and Romanisation. The conclusion that can be drawn is that nearly no Roman influence can be seen in the Nabataean kingdom before the annexation and the model created with the use of the abovementioned Egyptian and Syrian site does not fit with the Nabataean kingdom before the annexation. Elements that could be seen as Roman are likely to be Hellenistic, elements which have been places inside a Nabataean context. The used theoretical concepts of Romanisation do not fit with the processes that are visible in the Nabataean kingdom, and Hellenisation is more likely. The discussed theoretical, anthropological background is at least partially applicable. More research is needed to enlarge the used dataset and to explain the reason why no Roman influence can be seen.Show less
This thesis aims to explore how run-off irrigation and terraces agriculture can be used to have a better understanding of the socio-economic dynamics and farming economy of the Petra region between...Show moreThis thesis aims to explore how run-off irrigation and terraces agriculture can be used to have a better understanding of the socio-economic dynamics and farming economy of the Petra region between the Nabataean and the Byzantine Periods (100 BC – 400 AD approx.). Run-off irrigation and agricultural terraces are common around Petra and its hinterland. Despite such farming structures in Udhruh, a site located east of Petra, having been studied in detail in recent years, their roles in the hinterland’s farming economy are not completely clear yet. While the lack of material culture remains and stratified sequences in these agricultural systems represent a challenge for archaeologists, farming installations can be contrasted with the available archaeological and historical data. Using this approach, the vast agricultural landscape of Udhruh emerges. Five areas around the city of Petra and its hinterland which have evidence of run-off and agricultural terraces were selected for comparison: Beida and Wadi Musa, in the vicinity of the city, were all related to wine and olive production; and Humayma, Bir Madhkur and Wadi Faynan, sites in the hinterland, were cereal-based farming economies under military or imperial control. This information was contrasted with available data from Udhruh in order to understand the nature of its farming economy, which is found to fit with the hinterland pattern. A yield productivity estimation was then performed on one of the ancient terrace systems located northwest of Udhruh, followed by a population estimation to provide a quantitative image of how much such systems contributed to the ancient farming economy. This estimation, along with the wheat caloric component, was compared with the caloric need of a Roman soldier. The results demonstrated that the farming economy at Udhruh was reorganized after the Roman annexation in 106 AD, probably to support the presence of a Roman army at Udhruh. When the site experienced another transformation with the arrival of the Legio VI Ferrata during the Byzantine Period, agricultural and water management innovations were developed to handle the necessary increase in food production capacity. Therefore, this research demonstrates that the study of ancient run-off irrigation systems and agricultural terraces can be used in combination with archaeological and historical data to have a better understanding of ancient socio-economic dynamics.Show less
Abstract In 2011 an excavation in Camelon near Falkirk in Scotland revealed a large amount of leather artefacts, primarily shoes. After their conservation treatment these artefacts were brought to...Show moreAbstract In 2011 an excavation in Camelon near Falkirk in Scotland revealed a large amount of leather artefacts, primarily shoes. After their conservation treatment these artefacts were brought to Leiden University for further research. It was claimed that the find was unique because of its large quantity, good quality, sharp dating and well described find location. For this reason and the fact that leather artefacts can provide a lot of information about the people that lived in the past and could actually make major contributions in answering certain archaeological questions, the leather artefacts had to be documented well and extensively. But how to convert these objects into clear information? Because there was no standard approach of how to document complete archaeological leather, an approach had to be devised to document the Camelon find. There were two requirements the approach had to meet. Firstly, it had to display the information the leather artefacts possessed in a clear way and secondly, the results had to be suitable for comparison to other leather artefacts. While creating an approach for the Camelon leather, the idea emerged that this approach could actually serve as a standard approach for documenting all leather finds. Because when the approach is suitable for an unique find such as the Camelon leather, it must suitable for other leather finds as well. To investigate the uniqueness of the Camelon leather and to test the newly created approach for its desired requirements and its suitability as future standard approach, the results were compared to the records of three other but quite similar sites that were documented in previous years. The results of this comparison show that the requirements indeed have been met. The approach displays the information in a clear way and at the same time the results are easy comparable to other leather artefacts. It has also been found that the Camelon leather is an unique find. The other sites show similar quantities and good quality artefacts but not all sites have clearly described find locations or a good dating like the Camelon find has. When the suitability to serve as standard approach is subsequently investigated, it becomes clear that the approach created to document the Camelon leather is indeed very suitable. Modern techniques such as scanning machines and digital photography, make the approach that is created to document the Camelon leather favourable over the other approaches. The approach is actually more extended than the other approaches because of additional scans and photographs that shows the artefact condition and helps to examine the artefacts without having to touch them every time.Show less
This thesis is concerned with the city gates of Roman Ostia, the harbour-town of ancient Rome.The study examines whether there are any features (e.g. buildings, monuments and spatial use) that only...Show moreThis thesis is concerned with the city gates of Roman Ostia, the harbour-town of ancient Rome.The study examines whether there are any features (e.g. buildings, monuments and spatial use) that only occur because of the presence of the city gates. Furthermore, it investigates whether these buildings or spaces changed over time, responding to new infrastructural demands or functional requirements. To answer these questions, a detailed, map-based study and an on-site inspection of selected areas of Ostia’s built environment have been carried out. The principal data set for this study are the site maps of Ostia, available in printed form (Calza 1953) and in digital form (Manucci 1995). By examining the urban landscape of the areas around the city gates and by comparing this data to the urban composition throughout the rest of Ostia we noticed that the area around the city gates is equipped with a wide diversity of building-types. Around the gates we encountered all of the building that were needed for everyday life in Roman Ostia.Show less
The Horvat Kur stone was found during the 2012 excavation season at Horvat Kur in the Galilee. It was found in secondary use in a stylobate wall of a synagogue. Many questions arose concerning this...Show moreThe Horvat Kur stone was found during the 2012 excavation season at Horvat Kur in the Galilee. It was found in secondary use in a stylobate wall of a synagogue. Many questions arose concerning this unique object. In this thesis I have tried to find answers on these questions and I have offered a first interpretation.Show less
In recent decades many European city centers have been (re)developed to accommodate the exponential growth of inhabitants. Roman remains are regularly discovered during construction processes, and...Show moreIn recent decades many European city centers have been (re)developed to accommodate the exponential growth of inhabitants. Roman remains are regularly discovered during construction processes, and their careful excavation can delay construction projects significantly. The 1992 European Convention on the Protection of the Archaeological Heritage attempted to ensure the protection of archaeological heritage during urban (re)development. This has led to a rather strained relationship between urban planners and heritage managers. Better cooperation between these two stakeholders is necessary. In this thesis, key theories and concepts to improve cooperation are explored. On the basis of a mutual understanding of the similarities and differences between sociocultural and economic values, common ground can be found by the different stakeholders. Furthermore, sustainable tourism is an important concept. Recently an immense growth in cultural heritage tourism has occurred, also stimulated by the World Heritage List. Roman remains are among the most popular attractions, and are well represented on the List. Sustainable tourism is crucial to ensure long-term profit and minimal deterioration of cultural heritage. To create sustainable tourism in city centers, the theories of the ‘heritagescape’ and of the ‘experience economy’ are crucial. Attempting to create sustainable tourism in city centers with Roman remains is what will bring heritage managers and urban planners closer together. It is a common goal in which both these stakeholders’ values are represented. An investigation was conducted which consisted of a literature research and a field research. On the basis of a number of theories, the importance of sustainable heritage tourism was investigated from economic, social, and cultural perspectives. Important topics such as stakeholders, valuation, international legislation, and experience value are explored and explained. Field research was conducted in Rome (Italy), Bath (United Kingdom), and Cologne (Germany). It consisted of explorations of these city centers and interviews with the on-site heritage managers and project leaders. The information gathered was then analyzed. International regulations and valuations always need to be considered. However, through a common understanding of valuation systems of archaeological heritage it is easier to discuss the wants and needs of different stakeholders. Sustainable heritage tourism is beneficial for many parties, and represents many values. It can be created through applying the ‘heritagescape’ and the ‘experience economy’ theories. Fruitful cooperation between urban planners and heritage managers can be created by focusing on the common goal of creating sustainable heritage tourism.Show less
