Research master thesis | Archaeology (research) (MA/MSc)
under embargo until 2024-10-19
2024-10-19T00:00:00Z
During the early modern period (1500-1800 CE), Europe was plagued by syphilis, a venereal infection caused by the bacteria Treponema pallidum, resulting in chronic and debilitating symptoms....Show moreDuring the early modern period (1500-1800 CE), Europe was plagued by syphilis, a venereal infection caused by the bacteria Treponema pallidum, resulting in chronic and debilitating symptoms. Desperate to resolve the infection, patients were often subjected to prolonged and extensive treatments with toxic mercury. Unfortunately, osteoarchaeological study of syphilis is challenging due to the limited skeletal visibility of the infection. Moreover, historical evidence is sparse and often influenced by sociocultural stigma attributed to the venereal nature of the disease. This scarcity of data on syphilis in the early modern period has limited more holistic research into the disease and its treatment. Therefore, this study adopted a multidisciplinary approach to investigate syphilis and its treatment at St. Gertrude’s infirmary (1382 - ca. 1611) in Kampen, the Netherlands, where presence of the disease has been previously reported. Human skeletal remains (n=79) were re-examined with a focus on treponemal disease, following the scoring system laid out by Harper et al. (2011). The potential therapeutical use of mercury was investigated by conducting archival research and multiple trace elemental analyses. Using portable X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometry (pXRF) and Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS), subsamples of the skeletal assemblage were assessed on the presence of mercury in human bone. Scanning Electron Microscopy with Energy Dispersive X-Ray (SEM-EDX) was conducted to assess the potential uptake of mercury in dental calculus on the teeth. Osteoarchaeological study identified several diagnostic cases of treponemal infection at the site (n=5 or 6.33%), as well as a number of cases with lesions suggestive of treponemal disease. This finding demonstrates the influence of treponemal disease, likely attributable to venereal syphilis, at St. Gertrude’s infirmary in Kampen, especially when compared to the prevalence of the disease in human skeletal assemblages from similar Dutch sites. Research into historical archives indicated that mercury was indeed used therapeutically in Kampen during the 18th century. However, it showed no direct evidence for syphilis or mercury treatment at St. Gertrude’s infirmary in the period of interest (1382 – ca. 1611). Unfortunately, elemental analyses revealed no substantial evidence for significantly elevated mercury concentrations, although interesting trends were found. In particular, both pXRF and SEM-EDX analyses did not result in absolute and quantifiable mercury concentrations. While ICP-MS analysis showed absolute concentrations of mercury in a subsample of bone material, interpreting and contextualising these results remains challenging. These observations may be explained by a lack of available mercury treatment in Kampen or a preference for other treatment methods. Nonetheless, this study helps to understand syphilis and its treatment in the early modern Netherlands and provides an evaluation of chemical analyses to detect mercury in archaeological bone.Show less
In chemical analyses studies of archaeological ceramics, high phosphorus concentrations are found regularly. Over the past decades multiple hypotheses regarding the origin of these high levels have...Show moreIn chemical analyses studies of archaeological ceramics, high phosphorus concentrations are found regularly. Over the past decades multiple hypotheses regarding the origin of these high levels have been given, concerning the manufacture, use and burial environment of the ceramics. By focussing on how the phosphorus is distributed within the ceramic body and in which (mineral) form(s) it occurs, this thesis aims to gain a better understanding in the origin of these high phosphorus concentrations. This, in order to determine the potential of ceramic phosphorus analyses for archaeological research. A selection of ceramics with high levels of phosphorus was taken out of assemblages from four archaeological sites in the Netherlands: Maastricht Cannerberg (LBK), Voorschoten De Donk (middle and late Neolithic), Zandwerven (middle and late Neolithic) and Nijmegen Kops Plateau (Roman). Their chemical composition was analysed using XRF, after which an optical analysis using polarizing light microscopy and fluorescence microscopy was carried out. Multiple deposits with different optical properties were found within the voids of the ceramic body. SEM-EDX was used to analyse the chemical composition of these deposits, as well as the chemical composition of the ceramic fabric itself. This study demonstrates phosphorus is present in large concentrations within the deposits in the voids, while the ceramic body has much lower concentrations. Since these voids have been formed during or after the firing process of the ceramics, there are no indications for accumulation of phosphorus during the manufacturing process of the ceramics. The SEM-EDX analysis of the deposits indicates the presence of different phosphate compounds, containing Ca, Fe and/or Al. No visible traces of chemical weathering were found within the ceramics, indicating the Al-phosphates, present in some of the deposits, did derive from the burial environment. Given that there are several different deposits that contain high phosphorus concentrations, there are potentially multiple mechanisms involved in this phenomenon.Show less
