The Han Empire’s (206 BCE–220 CE) duration eclipsed that of any other ‘Chinese’ dynasty. It shared its northern borders with the Xiongnu Empire and became one of the pillars of the Silk Roads. This...Show moreThe Han Empire’s (206 BCE–220 CE) duration eclipsed that of any other ‘Chinese’ dynasty. It shared its northern borders with the Xiongnu Empire and became one of the pillars of the Silk Roads. This thesis studies the international trading relations of the Han Empire and whether this was impacted by the internal and/or external conflicts that the Han Empire engaged in. Cases of foreign goods unearthed from Han contexts include foreign ornaments made from various materials that reached Han tombs at Hepu through the Maritime Silk Road, and Xiongnu belt plaques uncovered from Western Han royal tombs. These are studied alongside Han bronze mirrors and Han lacquerwares found in respectively Xiongnu burials in Mongolia, and a Kushan site in Afghanistan. Trends that emerge from these case studies show that international trade gained momentum during the reign of Emperor Wudi (r. 141–87 BCE), which was characterized by expansionist policies, and continued throughout the later Western Han period into the 1st century CE. In the Eastern Han period (23–220 CE), which was more plagued by conflict than the earlier Western Han period, foreign goods in Han contexts see a decline while Han goods in foreign contexts cease to occur in the 2nd century CE. By placing these trends in the historical framework of the Han Dynasty, this thesis finds that the Han Empire’s foreign trading relations were more affected by the internal conflicts of the Han Dynasty, than by the external conflicts that the Han Empire engaged in.Show less
This thesis provides an insight into the textiles of the Tarim Basin, focusing on colours and patterns. It provides a dataset of a hundred samples to compare and study the basin’s textiles and...Show moreThis thesis provides an insight into the textiles of the Tarim Basin, focusing on colours and patterns. It provides a dataset of a hundred samples to compare and study the basin’s textiles and through them, the cultures they came from. It discusses the Roman-centric view of western archaeologists and whether this is visible when studying the available archaeological data. There is a clear difference in chronology visible in the textiles, as earlier textiles were made using individually dyed threads woven into patterns, while later textiles have patterns painted on the fabric. There is also a shift in the use of colour and patterns within sites over the centuries, much like fashion trends come and go in the modern day. Most of the samples in the dataset are silks, proving that silk was not purely used as a valuta within the Silk Roads, but was also used for luxury garments, accessories and for religious use. The site of Loulan is an archaeological treasure, and within this thesis there is a focus on textiles from this site in particular, next to other sites like Niya and Sampula. Comparing the textiles show that it is almost impossible to attach cultural labels on these samples through colours and patterns, as they are a product of a melting pot of cultures coming together in the Tarim Basin. One sample will have multiple cultural influences, and can therefore not be placed in one category. Much remains unknown about these textiles and further research is necessary to be able to shed more light on a fascinating piece of history of the ancient Silk Roads.Show less
This thesis compares the archaeobotanical remains from two Roman-era, Egyptian port sites: Berenike and Myos Hormos. A focus is put on the origin of the discovered materials, particularly in the...Show moreThis thesis compares the archaeobotanical remains from two Roman-era, Egyptian port sites: Berenike and Myos Hormos. A focus is put on the origin of the discovered materials, particularly in the context of the Silk Routes trade network of which these ports were a part. It concludes that Berenike seemingly had a larger focus on trade with Africa than Myos Hormos. Also, while both ports had Indian goods in their record, none seemed to have had a more pronounced focus on that subcontinent, although that was hypothesized beforehand. Furthermore, Berenike shows a decrease in the variety of goods traded after its period of inactivity in the 2nd and 3rd century, especially in regards to Indian goods. However, the variety and amount of local and African goods increased. The concurrent demise of Myos Hormos in this period did not seem to have an effect on the traded goods. Finally, this thesis served as a good example of how comparitive research beyond the level of the individual site could benefit the field of Silk Routes research, and which challenges this approach faces.Show less
Xinjiang is a region that functions as the heart of the ancient Silk Roads, but it finds itself in a state of in-betweenness. Judging from historical research and archaeological evidence, many...Show moreXinjiang is a region that functions as the heart of the ancient Silk Roads, but it finds itself in a state of in-betweenness. Judging from historical research and archaeological evidence, many outside influences and different peoples have affected Xinjiang from the second century B.C.E. to the thirteenth century C.E., and evidence of the presence of three relatively lesser-known religions appears in a spatial pattern along the different Silk Road routes. This thesis discusses these influences, the three religions, and the concepts of spatiality and in- betweenness, and through this lens, approaches the functioning of this turbulent region in the ancient Silk Roads era.Show less
Research master thesis | Archaeology (research) (MA/MSc)
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The Tang (唐) dynasty (618 – 907 C.E.), and to a lesser extent the Sui (隋) dynasty (589 – 617 C.E.) that directly preceded it, is often considered to be China’s premier ‘Golden Age’, the height of...Show moreThe Tang (唐) dynasty (618 – 907 C.E.), and to a lesser extent the Sui (隋) dynasty (589 – 617 C.E.) that directly preceded it, is often considered to be China’s premier ‘Golden Age’, the height of its cultural expression and the peak of its international trade. By contrast, the preceding period of disunity, often called the Six Dynasties period (六朝) (220 – 589 C.E.), stands out as a time of great chaos, uncertainty, and isolation in the minds of many both today and at the time of the Tang. A clear schism thus exists in our image of China in the first millennium C.E.. Yet this image comes to us mainly from written sources both ancient and modern, and is rarely independently analysed based on the archaeological remains of the periods. The aim of this thesis is to place archaeological material from China, which played a role in the ancient Silk Road trade network during the first millennium C.E., on a level with the historical sources, to find where they may coincide with or contradict each other, thus enriching our understanding of China’s role in the world of the first millennium C.E.. In order to do so, the thesis poses the question whether this schism of China’s active participation in international trade between the Six Dynasties and Tang periods can be traced in the archaeological evidence of trade from these periods, by studying a selection of Chinese archaeological material dating to the first millennium C.E. and analysing it through the lens of a world-systems and globalisation theoretical framework. The material used comes from Paul Ruitenbeek Art Gallery in Amsterdam, as well as several museum collections and academic and non-academic publications, as this is a topic not widely explored in academia. The Case Studies are organised into the themes of ‘Trade and travel represented’, ‘Exported items: luxury and practicality’, ‘Currency on the Silk Roads’, and ‘Influential style and beauty’. Ultimately, based on the combination of historical context, previous research, the case studies, and the theoretical framework, the conclusion is reached that while significant changes can be observed in China’s political situation and its involvement within the Silk Road trade network throughout the first millennium C.E., and these developments are at times closely influenced by each other, they are not intrinsically linked, as it was in fact the adaptability of the network and its various players that allowed the network to persist over such a long 128 period of time. Further research is needed to gain a true understanding of China’s role in the Silk Road trade network during the first millennium C.E..Show less
The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) represents China’s biggest infrastructure development project ever, which aims to enhance the connection between China and the rest of the world. This initiative...Show moreThe Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) represents China’s biggest infrastructure development project ever, which aims to enhance the connection between China and the rest of the world. This initiative is based on the trade network that connected Afro-Eurasia in antiquity, today commonly referred to as the Silk Road(s). This thesis aims to investigate the influence that Chinese politics have on archaeological work in the countries involved in the BRI, and how these are used to legitimize narratives of historical “friendship” between China and these countries. By studying the modern literature about the use of archaeology and history in the design of the BRI, as well as discussing the BRI-Chinese archaeological campaigns within the framework of heritage and archaeological theory, this thesis is a contribution to the wider topic of the political use of archaeology. Many joint Sino-foreign archeological projects have been started in correspondence and after the presentation of the BRI in 2013. Two examples are the projects in Kenya and Oman, aimed at identifying the passage of the Ming admiral Zheng He and his fleet in these countries as reported in the historical records. The methodology adopted by Chinese archaeologists presents several controversial issues. Their theoretical and practical approach echoes the culture-historical paradigm of 19/20th-century Western nationalist archaeology. This can be seen as the result of the influence of Chinese nationalism on archaeological work. Chinese archaeology has a heavy nationalist imprint, and aims to strengthen the Chinese national identity and its cultural roots. This aspect is going to characterize the essence of Chinese archaeology more and more in the future, as advocated by President Xi Jinping and supported by Chinese archaeologists themselves. Even though there is a will by the Chinese to enhance cooperation in the field with other countries, this thesis demonstrates that their methodology is mostly incompatible with modern world archaeology. Furthermore, I state the importance for archaeologists to separate their political views from their work, in order to carry on scientifically objective research. Further discussion is needed on the topic of international archaeological cooperation and its inclusion in academic education, especially regarding countries characterized by a high nationalist sentiment like in the case of China.Show less
