The World Health Organisation has estimated that smoking kills approximately 7 million people per year worldwide (WHO, 2017: 70). The relationship between smoking tobacco and death has been proven,...Show moreThe World Health Organisation has estimated that smoking kills approximately 7 million people per year worldwide (WHO, 2017: 70). The relationship between smoking tobacco and death has been proven, and widely accepted for decades. Notwithstanding the detrimental effects on public health, this unhealthy habit may also have some positive effects: oiling social contacts, easing the nerves, and heighten concentration (Knol in Colombijn et al., 2001: 49). However, whereas concentration and relaxation may be obtained through other means, a cure for death is yet to be found. As such, it is clear that we shall approach the act of smoking in this thesis as unwanted behaviour. Thankfully, owning to big scale awareness campaigns, and an ongoing global increase in taxation rates, daily smoking rates in most OECD countries have significantly decreased over the past few decades, with currently an average rate of 18% of daily smokers, compared to 26% daily smokers in 2000 (OECD, 2017). In some parts of Asia however, smoking remains a growth market and big transnational tobacco corporations (TTCs) still seems to have their claws firmly set in a number of nations (Parkinson, 2015). In terms of male smoking prevalence, Indonesia is by far the world’s worst performer with a national male smoking prevalence of 76.2%, leaving other bad examples, like Russia (59.0%), and China (47.6%) far behind (WHO, 2015). When accounting for the significantly lower female smoking rates (3.6%) Indonesia’s average smoking prevalence is still one of the highest in the world, preceded only by Russia, and a mere handful of countries in the Balkan region and the Pacific Ocean (Ibid.). This apparent vulnerability to the unhealthy habbit has not gone unnoticed by big tobacco, illustrated by the recent takeovers of Indonesian tobacco companies by global market leaders like Philip Morris International (PMI) and the British American Tobacco Company (BAT). Another factor contributing to the alarming severity of Indonesia’s smoking addiction are its demographic projections. Indonesia is currently sitting on a large demographic dividend, and the population is projected to grow with another 70 million by 2050 (Kohler, Behrman & Arianto, 2015: 4). Seeing that most beginner smokers are children or young adolescents, it is paramount that this surplus of human capital is protected in a country were smoking regulations are still below par (Parkinson, 2015). An alarming study found that between 2001 and 2010, the number of children (10-14) who smoked, rose by 80 percent and the number of children (5-9), who started smoking, quadrupled (Rosser, 2015: 69). A more recent study, by the Indonesian Ministry of Health, showed that between 2013 and 2018, smoking prevalence among children (10-18) increased from 7.2% to 9.1% (Ministry of Health, 2018: 72), and the 2015 Global School-based Student Health Survey calculated an even more alarming number for the age group 13-17 at 13.60% smoking prevalence (WHO, 2015: 5). A slightly less pronounced, though, still alarming increase in young smokers. In order to explain the uphill battle which Indonesia seems to be fighting in the face of such a major public health crisis, I will compare Indonesia’s performance with one of its Southeast Asian neighbours boasting far lower numbers in terms of smoking prevalence, namely Thailand. In 2018, Thailand solidified its position as the leader in tobacco restrictions, when it became the first Asian country to require a standardized packaging for all cigarettes. The new legislation requires all cigarette products to be sold in drab brown coloured packs, free of any logos or brand images, with 85 percent pictorial health warnings on both sides of the pack (Southeast Asia Tobacco Control Alliance, 2018). It has been suggested by Thai specialists, like Duncan McCargo, that Thailand’s successes in tobacco control could serve as a case study for other developing nations (Chantornvong & McCargo, 2001: 48; Parkinson, 2015: 3). And indeed, in contrast to Indonesia, were men still puff away freely in almost any given location whether it be in a restaurant, air-conditioned coffeehouse, or school, Thailand seems well able to keep smoking outside of most public places, with heavy fines (a penalty fee for smoking in prohibited areas amounts to THB 5.000, although at the time of writing, the previous fee of THB 2000 is still in use), a number of awareness campaigns, and a national ban on advertisement. Don’t walk and smoke It is already past 2:00 a.m. when we exit the big 24/7 supermarket with a new drab coloured pack of cigarettes. Bangkok, the city that never sleeps, seems to have fallen into a bit of a slumber around the usually bustling street of Ekkamai. Located close to Sukkumvit road, most of the activity in this part of one of the richer districts in Bangkok seems to shut its eye’s around 1:00 a.m. The party continues further north up the street, where Soi Ekkamai meets Thong Lor on a small strip that forms a bridge between Bangkok’s wealthy sons and daughters of media tycoons, business moguls, and the handful of foreign tourists who dared venture outside the backpackers capital that is Khaosan road. Sand, who I regard as an example of emancipated female Bangkokians, looks at the fresh merchandise in my hand. We both light one up. As I am about to head into the direction of my apartment she stops me. “Ee, mai dai! (cannot)” She says. I ask her what seems to be the problem. “It’s just not polite”. She looks at the few people still hanging around the supermarket. Seconds after we light the cigarettes two people exiting the supermarket cross our path, making Sand throw an apologetic look into their direction.Show less
Introduction. Smoking during pregnancy poses a risk for negative developmental outcomes, e.g. aggression. This study focuses on the relation between smoking during pregnancy and aggressiveness of...Show moreIntroduction. Smoking during pregnancy poses a risk for negative developmental outcomes, e.g. aggression. This study focuses on the relation between smoking during pregnancy and aggressiveness of 12-months-old infants. Three groups were compared: infants of mothers who smoked during the whole pregnancy, infants of mothers who smoked until they knew they were pregnant and infants of mothers who did not smoke during their pregnancy. Also a high risk group and low risk group were compared. Methods. 56 mothers (M = 21.95 years, SD = 2.57) and their children, 26 boys (M = 12.56 months, SD = .49) and 30 girls (M = 12.52 months, SD = .43), participated. Smoking during pregnancy is measured by the Dutch translation of the Becoming a Mother questionnaire at the 27th week of pregnancy. Aggression is measured by the Cardiff Infant Contentiousness Scale and Physical Aggression Scale for Early Childhood at the infant age of 12 months. Results. No significant difference in aggressiveness between infants in the three maternal smoking groups was found. In addition, the average levels of aggressive behavior of 12-months-old infants whose mothers smoked until they knew they were pregnant did not differ significantly between the high risk group and the low risk group. Conclusion. In this study, no relation between smoking during pregnancy and aggressive behavior of 12-month-old infants is found. Furthermore, the high risk and low risk group were not associated with different levels of aggressiveness of 12-month-olds.Show less
