For several decades, Palestinian refugees have been subject to multiple instances of discrimination, particularly when seeking asylum in neighboring countries such as Lebanon who have long...Show moreFor several decades, Palestinian refugees have been subject to multiple instances of discrimination, particularly when seeking asylum in neighboring countries such as Lebanon who have long advocated against becoming a host nation. Notwithstanding, Lebanese authorities have been rather inconsistent with its decision as proven by the 'Syrian exception' – wherein Syrian refugees have benefitted from Lebanon and Palestine's tumultuous past, and were therefore able to contribute to the overall Lebanese social structure, specifically in terms of boosting the economy.Show less
This thesis seeks to give a more accurate account as to why al-Qaeda and the Islamic State broke off ties amid the Syrian civil war in 2014. To answer this question this thesis mainly draws on...Show moreThis thesis seeks to give a more accurate account as to why al-Qaeda and the Islamic State broke off ties amid the Syrian civil war in 2014. To answer this question this thesis mainly draws on theories about cooperation and competition between terrorist organisations. A study of the effects of these types of relationships, as well as a thorough account of the events leading up to the break in 2014, has furthermore given an insight into this difficult relationship. The thesis introduces the notion of a competitive alliance, combining competitive and cooperative aspects, to make sense of this divorce.Show less
The Syrian civil war has been one of the most protracted and severe conflicts in the Middle East in recent decades. Through this conflict, Syria has become the hub in regional conflicts,...Show moreThe Syrian civil war has been one of the most protracted and severe conflicts in the Middle East in recent decades. Through this conflict, Syria has become the hub in regional conflicts, geopolitical strife and sectarian violence. This thesis examines the European Union's response to this complex conflict through a neorealist lens and a detailed discussion of European policy throughout the years.Show less
The number of residents of Nordic countries, who have joined the contemporary conflicts of Iraq and Syria as foreign fighters, is high in relation to their populations. While most of these...Show moreThe number of residents of Nordic countries, who have joined the contemporary conflicts of Iraq and Syria as foreign fighters, is high in relation to their populations. While most of these individuals have indeed travelled to the conflict zones to become foreign fighters in the ranks of ISIS or other Islamist groups, there are also Nordic residents who have joined factions fighting against the Islamists. This thesis studies the background factors and motivational reasons in becoming a foreign fighter of 26 individuals from Nordic countries in Kurdish factions in the conflicts of Iraq and Syria, combining both primary and secondary sources in the research and linking the findings of the research into existing literature in the emerging field of foreign fighter studies.Show less
The Syrian civil war has evolved from local to a conflict with global repercussions. Russia’s decision to intervene militarily has arguably been of great influence on the Syrian conflict. The main...Show moreThe Syrian civil war has evolved from local to a conflict with global repercussions. Russia’s decision to intervene militarily has arguably been of great influence on the Syrian conflict. The main focus of this thesis is to assess the effectiveness of Russia’s foreign policy regarding Syria, specifically the ongoing Syrian conflict. This is measured by analysing the translation of foreign policy goals into implementation and by determining whether the goals have been met. The groundwork in terms of literature consists of scholarly work on the making and implementation of foreign policy both in general and in relation to Russia. The main chapters are devoted to the goals, implementation and achievements of Russia’s foreign policy with respect to Syria. First, light is shed on the goals of Russia’s foreign policy regarding Syria and their mode of implementation. Then it is determined if and to what extent the foreign policy goals have been met. This then allows for analysis of the factors that have either fostered or constrained the implementation of Russia’s foreign policy goals. Finally, a cautious effort is made to discern future prospects regarding Russia’s foreign policy in Syria.Show less
The struggle between sovereignty and humanitarian intervention remains one of the fundamental controversies in international politics. The 1648 Treaty of Westphalia helped to bring peace to much of...Show moreThe struggle between sovereignty and humanitarian intervention remains one of the fundamental controversies in international politics. The 1648 Treaty of Westphalia helped to bring peace to much of the world through the creation and realisation of national sovereignty, however a growing global consciousness began to resist against this. The ratification of the responsibility to protect (R2P) doctrine in 2005 by the UN General Assembly set the humanitarian interventionist pendulum in motion. Providing a mechanism to facilitate foreign intervention in a sovereign state in order to protect human welfare, the R2P doctrine indicated a shark contrast with the past. Although proving successful in many cases, this doctrine has been pushed to its limits in Libya and Syria. Through content and discourse analysis this paper assesses the impact of the Libyan and Syrian crisis on the R2P doctrine, and as a result questions the feasibility and viability of the doctrine. R2P references in key UN documents show that R2P fails to positively influence decision making in the highest echelons of international diplomacy, while the comments of state representatives show that NATO’s un-mandated regime change in Libya has infected the doctrine. This infection has been so great that in its current form, R2P no-longer has a place in facilitating humanitarian intervention.Show less
In a globalizing world, where experiencing new cultures is on a lot of bucket lists, the study of cultural interaction has become very popular. In our modern day and age, we like to project this...Show moreIn a globalizing world, where experiencing new cultures is on a lot of bucket lists, the study of cultural interaction has become very popular. In our modern day and age, we like to project this etic phenomenon of our modern day globalization onto the ancient world. And not without avail, research has found that cultural interaction did indeed take place in the ancient world, although we need to keep in mind that the emic perspective might have been a bit different from our own. A lot of intercultural interaction took place in the Eastern Mediterranean during the Bronze Age. During this period ships filled with luxurious gifts and exotic merchandise were plying the seas. However, this transfer of material culture did not only occur through trade or gift exchange, but also through warfare and travelling craftsmen. The transfer of non-material culture also took place, for example through the transfer of techniques and ideas. This could also take the form of motif transference. This thesis examines the phenomenon of motif transference between the Aegean, the Near East and Egypt during the Bronze Age. Besides the acculturation between two cultures, it is also possible for cultural interaction to take place between three or more cultures. This is reflected in the art of the Bronze Age, in which some motifs were shared by the artistic traditions of the Aegean, the Near East and Egypt. The transfer in style as well as technology and iconography created a new level of hybridity that lasted until the end of the Late Bronze Age and which is often called the international style. But the objects which are considered to belong to the international style, were not the only ones displaying a common style. Throughout the Eastern Mediterranean frescoes were found with motifs from the Aegean artistic tradition, which were produced during the Middle and Late Bronze Age. They are found in geographically important cities, which were located along important trade routes. These paintings were found at Alalakh, Miletus and Hattusa in Turkey, Qatna in Syria, Tel Kabri in Israel, Tell el-Dab’a, Malkata and Amarna in Egypt and display hybrid influences in iconography as well as technology. The goal of this thesis is to determine if the much-debated international style at present has a too narrow definition, which might need to be expanded to include these frescoes. This study tries to determine whether or not the palatial art found in the Eastern Mediterranean can be seen as a part of the international style.Show less
The relationship between humanitarian aid and peace prospects, and the differences between this in the case of a proxy civil war and a non-proxy civil war is that in a proxy civil war there is a...Show moreThe relationship between humanitarian aid and peace prospects, and the differences between this in the case of a proxy civil war and a non-proxy civil war is that in a proxy civil war there is a greater need for a specific case approach because proxy civil wars are much more complicated. In a non-proxy civil war a peaceful situation has to been agreed on on the local level and humanitarian aid could contribute to peace prospects, in a proxy civil war humanitarian aid affects peace prospects to a lesser degree because of the multi-layered nature of this type of conflict where on all layers of the proxy civil war peace has to be agreed on. Moreover, aid providers, donors, and other (foreign) involved actors have more influence on a proxy civil war than in a non-proxy civil war and therefore humanitarian aid could adversely affect peace prospects.Show less
Many factors influenced the eradication of the peace process between Turkey and the PKK in early 2015. Some scholars argue that the elections in 2015 and Recep Tayyip Erdogan's personal political...Show moreMany factors influenced the eradication of the peace process between Turkey and the PKK in early 2015. Some scholars argue that the elections in 2015 and Recep Tayyip Erdogan's personal political ambitions towards a presidential system were the major factors behind the revival of the violence between Kurdish armed groups and Turkish security forces. Another given argument is the suspended bid of Turkey for accession to the European Union, and the incapability of the EU to enforce reforms within Turkey. Others state that the civil war in Syria, and the policies of Turkey concerning the Kurds in the region was crucial and caused a spill over of the conflict. The central question of this thesis is: what factors have led the Turkish government to change its policies towards the Kurdish groups after 2011 and subsequently led to the end of the Turkey-PKK peace process?Show less
The thesis deals with the reception of Lā Sakākīn fī Maṭābikh Hādhihi al-Madīna, a novel about an aristocratic family living in Aleppo, that disintegrates more and more due to the influence of the...Show moreThe thesis deals with the reception of Lā Sakākīn fī Maṭābikh Hādhihi al-Madīna, a novel about an aristocratic family living in Aleppo, that disintegrates more and more due to the influence of the ruling party. It was composed by Syrian writer Khaled Khalifa, and published in 2013. For the research project, a combination of online sources was examined, namely official reviews published on websites of newspapers, and reader responses on social networking site Goodreads. After giving an overview of reception theory and Arabic literary criticism over time, the method used for analysing the texts is described. It was derived from an article by Wendy Griswold, in which she divided readers into different audiences and described their evaluations. The same is done in the thesis, readers are divided according to the language they communicate in (Arabic vs. English / Dutch), as well as concerning the way they publish their reactions (use of social media vs. official websites). Succeeding chapters discuss important findings, firstly with regard to literary value, secondly regarding politics, and thirdly concerning social morals. Its excellent reception in the Arabic world was called into question, as well as the assumption that ‘Western’ critics do not comment on the literary value of Arabic novels. The thesis concludes by summarising its results, of which the most outstanding may be the critical attitude towards authority of users of social media in combination with their, on the whole, conservative ideas.Show less
Stylized depictions of animals with imposing horns, birds and various other animal species are often seen as characteristic for Halaf painted pottery. In fact they remain exceptional as Halaf Fine...Show moreStylized depictions of animals with imposing horns, birds and various other animal species are often seen as characteristic for Halaf painted pottery. In fact they remain exceptional as Halaf Fine Ware is generally dominated by geometric motifs. There is more about these figurative motifs than meets the eye. Apart from species identification, how can we interpret this figurative art? This study investigates the animal symbolism as painted on Halaf Fine Ware ceramic containers from Tell Sabi Abyad, located in the Balikh region of northern Syria. In order to interpret these animal motifs, the study contextualizes the motifs against the zoo-archaeological record, the depositional context, and the context of use. It appears that animals used in art were special, showing an inverse relationship with the faunal record. These animals probably represented seasonality and danger, and they may have been related to taboos and apotropaic magic. Moreover, some animals might have functioned within complex narratives, which were brought to life as the vessels upon which they were painted were discussed during Halaf commensality practices.Show less
The uprisings across the Middle East starting in 2010, commonly referred to as the "Arab Spring," have drawn widespread international attention to themselves. Two of the most violent instances, the...Show moreThe uprisings across the Middle East starting in 2010, commonly referred to as the "Arab Spring," have drawn widespread international attention to themselves. Two of the most violent instances, the uprisings in Libya and Syria, have seen a very different approach from the international community while having similarities in terms of violence and violations of international laws. The thesis examines how international relations theories, namely neorealism, constructivism, and liberal institutionalism attempt to expla the change in tone with regards to the application of the Responsibility to Protect (R2P). Each case study is examined in detail and both are related to international law which displays that R2P should have been invoked in both cases. A conclusion is drawn in favor of constructivism as the theory providing the best explanation for the change in R2P application.Show less
Research master thesis | Middle Eastern Studies (research) (MA)
open access
Debates around water in the MENA region center on its potential for conflict or for cooperation, with predictions of future water wars. Water is presented as a natural resource or an economic or...Show moreDebates around water in the MENA region center on its potential for conflict or for cooperation, with predictions of future water wars. Water is presented as a natural resource or an economic or political commodity. The debate is mostly focused on the international, inter-state scale. In recent years, however, some scholars have argued that a focus on the national or local level would generate more interesting and useful research regarding the importance of water and water management. The Middle East is generally regarded as a very water-scarce and fragile region. Syria, that since the Arab Spring of 2010-2011 has been torn by civil war, is particularly interesting. Water scarcity and climate change have been mentioned in scholarly and popular discourse as possible factors for the Syrian population’s dissent. In this thesis I explore the theoretical and practical political dynamics of water within the paradigm of water as a tool for conflict or cooperation. Through an integrative historical framework I identify four possible political functions of water: water as a tool for diplomacy, development, democracy, or war. Political water management can be conducted at different scalar levels via pragmatic strategies that serve different political agendas. I argue that both the notion of relative availability of water and the appearance of pragmatic strategies in water management must be taken into account in the debate on water. Furthermore, through balancing theory and practice of Syrian water management, both abstract and concrete political dynamics are revealed.Show less
The year 2010 inaugurated a tumultuous period for a range of countries in the Middle East and Northern Africa. Protests compelling for democratization culminated in violent clashes between rebels...Show moreThe year 2010 inaugurated a tumultuous period for a range of countries in the Middle East and Northern Africa. Protests compelling for democratization culminated in violent clashes between rebels and authoritarian regimes across the region. In response to the escalation of violence in Libya, an alliance of countries established a no-fly zone for halting the exorbitant regime violence against the rebels and the population. Shortly after, NATO took over command. A similar intervention in Syria did not occur, in spite of the widespread human rights violations and grave human suffering. A comparison between the cases of Libya and Syria sheds light on the factors that shaped the different international community responses to the conflicts and also contributes to the greater puzzle of why states intervene in some atrocities but not in others. This study found that a prime factor impacting humanitarian intervention occurrence in Libya and Syria is the UN Security Council’s task to provide authorization within a context of disputed legality of humanitarian interventions. In addition, it is concluded that UNSC member’s positions with respect to intervening were guided by their political interests and to a lesser extent by their economic interests. Finally, the anticipated outcomes of the two humanitarian intervention scenarios influenced intervention behavior, which explains why only one intervention was conducted. All these factors are indispensable components of an inclusive explanation for the different responses to the civil wars in Libya and Syria.Show less
Humanitarian ideals are increasingly driving the rhetoric of intervention in the post-Cold War period. Is this indicative of conscientious international environment, or are more cynical...Show moreHumanitarian ideals are increasingly driving the rhetoric of intervention in the post-Cold War period. Is this indicative of conscientious international environment, or are more cynical machinations responsible? Through the analysis of the political rhetoric of prominent case studies, this paper seeks to determine the nature of humanitarian intervention in relation to contemporary understandings of international politics.Show less
Research master thesis | Political Science and Public Administration (research) (MSc)
open access
This study investigates the relationship between actorness and effectiveness and questions the direct influence of coherent behavior united positions of EU member states on the degree of activeness...Show moreThis study investigates the relationship between actorness and effectiveness and questions the direct influence of coherent behavior united positions of EU member states on the degree of activeness the EU exerts during an international crisis. It looks at the interplay between actorness, the institutional setup of the EU and the role it took up during different crises. In addition to that, it questions the direct relation between a high degree of actorness translating into more influence on the international stage. It does so by answering the question if a more coherent foreign policy – as it is generally argued – would better enable the EU to exploit its capability as an international actor in global affairs. Two cases were studied to find answers on these questions: the Mali and the Syrian crises. In fact, the Mali crisis was characterized by a high degree of cohesive behavior, whereas in the Syrian crisis frictions were predominant even though a comprehensive sanctions regime could be installed. Institutional aspects, namely the changes with regards to EU foreign policy introduced by the Lisbon Treaty as well as characteristics of the member states, including size and length of membership, were vital as well. Further, the activeness of the EU in both crisis was different in the way that the EU took up a more active and decisive role in the Mali crisis as compared to Syria. Therefore, the expected effect could be found in both cases.Show less
