Placebos have been shown to affect both subjective experiences and physiological markers. However, their influence on defensive responses to threat has yet to be investigated. This study examines...Show morePlacebos have been shown to affect both subjective experiences and physiological markers. However, their influence on defensive responses to threat has yet to be investigated. This study examines whether a placebo manipulation can impact subjective pain ratings in response to the shock, as well as heart rate during shock anticipation, in healthy individuals. Participants (n=72) were tested in a Pavlovian threat conditioning paradigm over two days with a 24-hour interval, in a within-subject design. A sham analgesic electrical stimulation (TENS) was used to induce a placebo effect. The placebo conditioning process paired a placebo stimulus ("painful shock + TENS") with a low pain response, followed by two sessions of associative threat conditioning. Subjective pain ratings and heart rate, as an indicator of the freezing response, were measured across different conditions. The STAI-trait questionnaire was also completed. Results indicated higher subjective pain levels in response to the painful shock compared to the TENS shock during the threat acquisition phase. Importantly, during this phase, stronger heart rate deceleration, indicative of freezing, was observed when anticipating the painful shock versus the TENS shock. There was no evidence the placebo effect persisted during the threat retention stage, as there were no significant differences in heart rate while anticipating the two conditions. Trait anxiety did not significantly influence the placebo response. These findings demonstrate that a placebo intervention affects not only subjective experiences but also physiological responses to threat, highlighting the potential of using placebos as co-interventions for individuals experiencing anxiety.Show less
The complexities of daily life require us to have a flexible mind. Indeed, our world is constantly changing, urging us to respond in an adaptive, flexible manner to external demands. Previous...Show moreThe complexities of daily life require us to have a flexible mind. Indeed, our world is constantly changing, urging us to respond in an adaptive, flexible manner to external demands. Previous research has linked trait anxiety to decreased cognitive flexibility. Although past research has repeatedly implied that higher levels of anxiety in adolescents is related to lower levels of cognitive flexibility, there is little research about protective factors that positively influence this relationship. Therefore, the aim of the study was to investigate whether different types of empathy have a moderating effect on the relationship between trait anxiety and cognitive flexibility. It was hypothesized that higher levels of trait anxiety predict lower levels of cognitive flexibility, this relationship was expected to be moderated by three types of empathy, namely affective empathy, cognitive empathy, and intention to comfort. In the final sample, a total of 103 healthy participants were included, (51 females, 52 males), around 25 from each of the defined age groups: 9-10 (pre-adolescents), 12-13 (early adolescents), 15-16 (mid-adolescents), 18-19 (late-adolescents). Trait Anxiety was measured with the State-Anxiety Inventory DY (STAI), the Cognitive Flexibility Scale (CFS) was used to assess cognitive flexibility, and the Empathy Questionnaire for Children and Adolescents (EmQue-CA) measured the level of all three empathy types. Results indicated, concurrent with the first hypothesis, higher levels of trait anxiety predict lower levels of cognitive flexibility. However, inconsistent with the second hypothesis, the relationship between trait anxiety and cognitive flexibility was not moderated by any of the three empathy types. Given that results predicted decreased levels of cognitive flexibility in trait-anxious adolescents, more research is crucial to investigate the protective mechanism of empathy on the interaction between trait anxiety and cognitive flexibility.Show less
