The Xiongnu have long been disregarded, thinking that they played no active part within world history. This thesis aims to shed light on Xiongnu trade and its cultural impact on their culture by...Show moreThe Xiongnu have long been disregarded, thinking that they played no active part within world history. This thesis aims to shed light on Xiongnu trade and its cultural impact on their culture by means of three detailed case studies, which are placed against a theoretical background that involves globalization theory. These case studies focus on one material group (textile, metal or lacquerware) and a burial mound from a different cemetery each (Noyon Uul, Gol Mod 2, Tsaraam Valley), in order to approach the following big questions: To which degree was trade present between the Xiongnu and other cultures and how that is reflected in their material culture? How large an influence are the Chinese dynasties on Xiongnu culture? Did the local Xiongnu culture remain standing despite influences from the outside? The first case study, following a chapter discussing globalization theory and its application itself, examines textile finds from mound 22 of Noyon Uul. The designs, materials and dyes will be analysed, resulting in data that reveals foreign origin of whole objects or some of the raw materials. The second case study comprises of an analysis of the metal finds found within mound 1 of the Gol Mod 2 cemetery. These metal finds all stem from Han style chariots, though the production techniques of the metal (iron and bronze) show that these chariot components were likely locally made by Xiongnu peoples instead. Lastly, the third case study concerns a lacquer box retrieved from mound 7 of the Tsaraam Valley. This lacquer box bears a Chinese inscription and shows other signs of being a product made with diplomatic purposes in mind as well. The chapter following the case studies discusses what implications the findings of the case studies actually have in regard to globalisation and trade. The textiles and the metal finds reveal that foreign elements have been adopted and sometimes have been adapted to fit Xiongnu culture better. The lacquer box reinforces the idea that the Xiongnu received goods from the Chinese in accordance with treaties between the two empires. Though the overall scale of this research is rather small, it provides a nice picture of how dynamic trade on the steppes likely has been, which contrasts the old notion that the Xiongnu were passive barbarians that slowly Sinicized.Show less
Tombs from various areas in the world have been reopened in antiquity. In this thesis the reopened Xiongnu period (200BC – 150 AD) graves are reinterpreted in different ways to compare them with ...Show moreTombs from various areas in the world have been reopened in antiquity. In this thesis the reopened Xiongnu period (200BC – 150 AD) graves are reinterpreted in different ways to compare them with ‘pristine’ graves. The goal of this thesis is to get insight in the degree in which reopened graves differed from intact graves and explore the existence patterns of that show in which way these graves are different from each other. The size and type of a tomb and what coffin type was inside were compared to the difference in human remains and artefacts in the grave. These were set against the space in which they were found, which gives insight in the (distribution) patterns. For the artefacts both a quantitative and qualitative analysis was made. The burial size and the age category of the deceased proved to be closely linked with each other. The graves that became the target of a reopening contained of both adult and child burials. The burials of adults did not contain human remains, while the child burials did contain portions of the skeleton. Which might be related to a different treatment of graves from different age categories. The quantitative analysis of artefacts showed that reopened adult burials contained a relatively lower amount of grave goods, compared to the other graves as well as the amount of artefacts inside the other tomb spaces. The qualitative approach provided an overview of the difference between reopened tombs and pristine tombs. They differ in that the pristine adult burials that did not contain cart parts and belt plaques, while the reopened adult burials did contain these objects. This difference probably explained by a different gender status. The other goal was to show who was responsible for the reopening and when this happened, but the data for this was to thin.Show less
From the second century BC and the second century AD the Xiongnu lived in the region that is now modern Mongolia, Southern Russia and North China. They were a powerful entity that was North of the...Show moreFrom the second century BC and the second century AD the Xiongnu lived in the region that is now modern Mongolia, Southern Russia and North China. They were a powerful entity that was North of the Han empire. The written sources from the Han dynasty show us that the Xiongnu tribe was hierarchically ordered, with the chanyu at the top. The status of the chanyu was hereditary. This made the Xiongnu empire the first and most stable steppe empire that has ever existed. In the graveyards from the Xiongnu there are tombs of several sizes and types. I’ve investigated these differences through by focussing on square tomb and one circular tomb in four case studies with a model to get insight into the spaces were grave goods and animal sacrifices are deposited. In these case studies I explored the similarities and differences between these tombs, that vary in their size. By comparing these tombs I hoped to get insight in the mortuary ritual. I’ve compared the tombs through their size, artefact assemblage and offers that are placed in spaces in the tomb. To get an answer to the assumption that tomb size is a indication for the status of the buried person and if there are other markers that can point to a higher status in society. In the historical sources there are several accounts that a carriage and loads of other items were given to the chanyu and his family by the Han emperor. This indicates that tombs with carriages inside might be attributed to the highest members of society. The results of this study show that the largest tombs have some features that are absent in smaller tombs. These features are a carriage from the Han and animal sacrifices that are placed in a different place than the other tombs. The larger tombs also seem to have more animal sacrifices compared to the smaller ones. Therefore there are more indications for a high status than just the size of the tomb.Show less
