It is shown that social mindfulness (SoMi) – a form of low-cost cooperation defined by leaving others with a choice – is positively related environmental concern at the country-level. However,...Show moreIt is shown that social mindfulness (SoMi) – a form of low-cost cooperation defined by leaving others with a choice – is positively related environmental concern at the country-level. However, little is known about individual-level environmental concern in relation to SoMi. This study explores whether social mindfulness can be connected to environmental concern on an individual level by differentiating environmental concern into attitudes, intentions, and self-reported and actual pro-environmental behaviors. A positive relationship is hypothesized between SoMi and the various expressions of EC. This relationship was assessed using a questionnaire-based correlational research design (N = 108). The results indicate a lack of associations between SoMi and environmental attitudes and pro-environmental behavior. However, an association is found between SoMi and pro-environmental intentions. This could enhance our understanding of how demonstrating consideration for others may be related to increased environmental concern on an individual level.Show less
This study focused on the effect of rewards on the cooperative behaviour of individuals when they were part of a mixed group containing both democrats and republicans. There were two conditions, in...Show moreThis study focused on the effect of rewards on the cooperative behaviour of individuals when they were part of a mixed group containing both democrats and republicans. There were two conditions, in the first condition the participants were told they could receive a different amount of reward, based on their political preference. In the second condition, this differential treatment was impossible, and all group members received the same amount of reward. It was expected that participants would cooperate more in the condition where they could be favoured by the reward-giver who shared their same political preferences. The study outcomes showed the opposite effect: individuals cooperated more when rewarding implied an equal treatment for all compared to when there was a possibility of being favoured.Show less
People are exposed to a wide range of aversive conditions, including climate change and pandemics, which can have a profound impact on individual wellbeing and communal functioning. While there is...Show morePeople are exposed to a wide range of aversive conditions, including climate change and pandemics, which can have a profound impact on individual wellbeing and communal functioning. While there is evidence suggesting that exposure to threat and the prospect of punishment promote cooperation, the necessity of punishment in cooperation’s maintenance under threat is largely unexplored. In the current study, we examined whether the presence of threat requires less punishment to maintain cooperation. In a laboratory experiment individuals in groups of three (N=60) were exposed (or not) to the threat of electric shocks while deciding how much to contribute to the common pool. Additionally, half of the tested groups (N=30) were subjected to a peer-punishment procedure in which individuals had the option to deduct money (MU’s) from other group members’ accounts. Heart rate and skin conductance were continuously measured while participants were exposed to the aforementioned procedure. In comparison to the nothreat condition, the threat of shock resulted in a neurophysiological freezing response characterized by a reduction in heart rate and an increase in skin conductance. We find that in contrast to our expectations, threat by itself does not promote cooperation and punishment is needed in cooperation’s maintenance. Overall, our results suggest that the presence of threat does not diminish the role of punishment in increasing cooperation. Our results have implications for policy interventions designed to sustain cooperation under threat.Show less
Many non-profit organisations employ not only volunteers, but also paid workers, to achieve their organisational objectives. This research examines whether the volunteers of a non-profit...Show moreMany non-profit organisations employ not only volunteers, but also paid workers, to achieve their organisational objectives. This research examines whether the volunteers of a non-profit organisation report appraisal and autonomous respect, job satisfaction and intent to remain a volunteer with the organisation, when they perceive that the paid workers of the organisation display self-sacrifice on behalf of the organisation and interactional justice. The research had a cross sectional survey design and the participants were volunteers working with paid workers in a non-profit organisation (a hospice; N = 52 hospice volunteers). Multiple regression analyses were conducted to test the hypotheses about direct effects. Among volunteers, autonomous and appraisal respect were found positively and directly related to job satisfaction. Additionally, among volunteers, interactional justice received from the paid workers of the organisation was found positively and directly related to autonomous respect, appraisal respect, and job satisfaction. Furthermore, among volunteers, perceived self-sacrifice on behalf of the organisation by the paid workers of the organisation was found directly and positively related to appraisal respect. Thereafter, a mediation regression analysis was conducted to test the hypothesis about the indirect effect. The mediation regression analysis showed that among volunteers, interactional justice received from the paid workers of the organisation relates positively and indirectly to job satisfaction through appraisal respect as a mediator. The theoretical and practical implications, as well as the limitations and suggestions for further research, are discussed.Show less
The continent of Africa has a massive deficit in infrastructure, which is a bottleneck for the continent's economic development. To overcome this deficit, Africa needs to invest heavily in its...Show moreThe continent of Africa has a massive deficit in infrastructure, which is a bottleneck for the continent's economic development. To overcome this deficit, Africa needs to invest heavily in its infrastructure. The current road and rail networks are insufficient to cope with the increasing demand, and, taking into consideration the vast distances on the African continent, it is essential for Africa to develop aviation. With a developed domestic aviation market, China is stepping up to help with this task as it is expanding its global presence due to growing welfare and demand for resources and markets. This research aims to find out how African aviation benefits from this cooperation. The following research question has been drawn up for this purpose: How much does the Chinese drive for expansion contribute to the African aviation market? Case studies were carried out to answer this research question. These case studies have shed light on the partnership between China and Africa. It also shows which lessons can be learned from China. Based on these findings, it can be said that China's expansion is making a positive contribution to improving and expanding the African aviation sector as a whole.Show less
Since WWII, the influence of IOs has increased where virtually all issue of global concern is administered by an IO. However, this influence has not come without its hazards. As the Global ...Show moreSince WWII, the influence of IOs has increased where virtually all issue of global concern is administered by an IO. However, this influence has not come without its hazards. As the Global “Governance Dilemma” theorizes, it is because of it that member states wish to ‘capture’ their decision-making and power-distribution apparatuses —their voting systems— to better realize their agendas. The case studies of two prominent IOs, the IMF and the UNSC, provide support that it is often true that these systems favor powerful member states due to a politicization of their voting systems. To address the potential causes and shortcomings of this phenomenon, this thesis conducted an in-depth case study of the institutional designs —Virtue Cultivation, Political Autonomy, and Meritocracy— of the Colombian Political Party MIRA that were born out of their unique theoretical framework of Miraísm. Through the implementation of these designs, this party successfully overcame obstacles akin to the ones that IOs face, despite their small size and the prevalence of corruption in Colombia. Building from this, the thesis followed a standard method of theory generation to create a novel framework regarding how to better resolve the core issue at hand: The Aligned Interests-Goals (AIG) Theory. In essence, this theory postulates that through specific institutional designs that tie A (self-interests) and B (goals) together by offering C (incentives) that provide the obtainment of A in exchange for proven efforts regarding B can effectively nudge behavior towards a virtuous cycle of positive competition for their mutual satisfaction. Based on the logic of this theory, the thesis delivered its main institutional proposal of Incentives-based Meritocratic Voting Systems as an alternative design to avoid the adverse consequences of politicized voting systems in IOs, while leaving prospect for the avoidance of absolute insulation from powerful member states, therefore increasing the probability for effective results regarding IO goals of intergovernmental cooperation, sacrifice, and change.Show less
Solving and effectively tackling crises requires cooperation. This statement is often considered a universal truth. The abundant literature assesses the performance and cooperation of crisis...Show moreSolving and effectively tackling crises requires cooperation. This statement is often considered a universal truth. The abundant literature assesses the performance and cooperation of crisis management organizations during a crisis. However, the existing literature neglects whether leaders within tasked with crisis management adopt a leadership style that facilitates this cooperation. This study defines how a crisis is associated with leadership behavior and if collaborative leadership behavior occurs. The COVID-19 pandemic presents a unique opportunity to assess this behavior. Leaders and people working under their supervision working in crisis management organizations of the Dutch Haaglanden safety region are interviewed to reflect on the approach a leader took and their behavior. The qualitative methods used present a deeper understanding of what leaders motivate to make certain decisions. Collaborative leadership behavior does occur during a crisis. The main motivations are that the increased pressure on the organization and the high uncertainty levels drives leaders to adopt several features of collaborative leadership behavior. Therefore, this research concludes that a crisis incentivizes leaders to assume a leadership style that facilitates collaboration within and between organizations. Nevertheless, further research is required on how other dimensions of crises – media and public pressure and resource scarcity – are associated with leadership behavior.Show less
Collective action problems such as climate change, overfishing and the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic can be tackled with large-scale cooperation. However, cooperation often deteriorates due to...Show moreCollective action problems such as climate change, overfishing and the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic can be tackled with large-scale cooperation. However, cooperation often deteriorates due to conflicts between collective and individual interests, even though collective action would result in more favorable outcomes for everyone. To protect oneself against the risks of cooperation failure, individual solutions to shared problems have been introduced, such as privatized healthcare and education. Unfortunately, these private alternatives to public goods may crowd out cooperation, leading to under-provision of public goods that benefit all members of society. The current study aimed to examine the role of leadership-by-example as a mechanism to facilitate group cooperation in a self-reliance dilemma, whereby participants confronted shared problems that could be solved either collectively or individually. Leadership was introduced by allowing one group member to set an example by choosing the cooperative or individual decision first. Both randomly assigned and endogenously self-selected leaders were investigated. We found that group members consistently preferred individual solutions when they were affordable, irrespective of leadership. However, no significant effects were found regarding the effect of leadership. While it is likely that a lack of statistical power led to these insignificant findings, it could be speculated that a lack of trust, risk aversion and lack of reciprocity may have played a role. These topics constitute interesting avenues for future research and would provide a comprehensive understanding of the role of leadership in coordinating collective action.Show less
Een collectieve ramp kan bestempeld worden als een sociaal dilemma. Sociale dilemma’s hebben als kenmerk dat het individuele belang in conflict raakt met het collectief belang. Dit artikel...Show moreEen collectieve ramp kan bestempeld worden als een sociaal dilemma. Sociale dilemma’s hebben als kenmerk dat het individuele belang in conflict raakt met het collectief belang. Dit artikel introduceert de term Publieke Vraag. Deze term geeft de vraag naar persoonlijke offers om een graduele overgang van negatieve naar positieve gevolgen te behalen weer. De publieke vraag en omgevingsonzekerheid die aanwezig zijn bij collectieve rampen worden onderzocht aan de hand van de eveneens in dit onderzoek geïntroduceerde public account games. Hierin worden de coöperatie beslissingen geanalyseerd die mogelijk gemaakt worden tijdens een collectieve ramp. Daarnaast kijkt dit artikel naar de verwachting van andermans bijdrage en het gebruik van focal points voor coördinatie. De publieke vraag en onzekerheid lijken geen impact te hebben op de coöperatiebeslissingen en verwachting van andermans bijdrage. Dit suggereert dat de publieke vraag niet als focal point wordt gebruikt om te coördineren tijdens een collectieve ramp zoals voorafgaand werd verwacht. Theoretische en methodologische implicaties worden besproken.Show less
The current study examines whether a public demand (for personal sacrifices) can serve as a focal point for coordinating cooperative decisions. The study also examines the influence of the...Show moreThe current study examines whether a public demand (for personal sacrifices) can serve as a focal point for coordinating cooperative decisions. The study also examines the influence of the uncertainty of public demand and the social value orientation of an individual on these cooperative decisions. The public demand in the current study simulates the threat of a potential collective disaster. In this study, a Public Goods Game and two variants of this game are used, the certain and uncertain Public Account Games. It was expected that there would be more cooperation in a situation with public demand and certain public demand, compared to no and uncertain public demand. Contrary to the expectations, the results indicated that adding public demand, both certain and uncertain, to the games does not affect cooperative decisions much. Also, in the certain public demand condition, tacit coordination through fairness rules was expected. However, the results show that there is no link between public demand as a focal point and the use of fairness rules. This finding implies that in situations with a public demand, the social value orientation of an individual is not relied upon, nor are cooperative decisions coordinated by applying fairness rules. In situations without public demand, the social value orientation of an individual turns out to be leading. The discussion outlines the implications for these findings and provides suggestions for future research.Show less
A mong re newable resources, water has been a constant f ocal point for concerns over scarcity and inter state competition . A comprehensive literature review suggests that academia is divided on t...Show moreA mong re newable resources, water has been a constant f ocal point for concerns over scarcity and inter state competition . A comprehensive literature review suggests that academia is divided on t he link between water scarcity and international relations . T h is analysis asks : How do inter state economic ties a ffe ct the influence of water scarcity on hydro political inter state relations? Building on classic liberal economic argument s this paper hypothesize s that the more two states are connected th rough trad e agre ements, the less likely it is f or water scarcity to lead to co nflictual hydro political r elations. I conduct an O rdinary Least Squares r egression and a M ulti n o mi al L og i stic r egression with ‘precipitation ’ as an independent variable, ‘inter state rela t ions’ during water eve nts as a dependent variable and ‘trade agreements’ ( aggre gated and disaggregated in bilateral and multilat eral t reaties ) as a conditiona l va riable. E ven though the empirical results are not robust across all models , a general directi on o f the moderation effect is evident. Inter state economic ties in gener al, and multilateral trade agreements in particular can diminish the negative effect of water scarcity on hydro politics. Potential future research should further test the rob ustne s s of this relationship and introduce more nuance by differentiating be twe en trade agreement types and improving the operationalization of the water scarcity variable.Show less
China desires to gain knowledge that is required to sophisticate its economy. This primarily involves investments in strategic sectors in Europe, which is increasingly received with anxiety and...Show moreChina desires to gain knowledge that is required to sophisticate its economy. This primarily involves investments in strategic sectors in Europe, which is increasingly received with anxiety and scepticism by European leaders. Therefore, an alternative for China to attain significant technological insights is open innovation. This research argues that this is a useful way of obtaining mutually profitable research and development. However, such a partnership requires confidence that is currently lacking. Therefore, this research answers the question: To what extent does the EU’s perception of China impede the Sino-EU cooperation on innovation? This dissertation examines this issue by analysing how the EU view on China influences trust towards this partner, and what this entails for open innovation. It is found that present preconceived negative notions on China lead to distrust. On certain issues, control mechanisms compensate for this lack of trust. However, more trust or control remains to be needed in order for future open innovation in this bilateral relationship to blossom.Show less
How can we understand the institutional development of EU cybersecurity cooperation from 2001 to 2018 and what are the consequences of this process? The problem of integration is an old, the domain...Show moreHow can we understand the institutional development of EU cybersecurity cooperation from 2001 to 2018 and what are the consequences of this process? The problem of integration is an old, the domain of cyber is new, controversial and interesting. The issue of cooperation within cyberspace is becoming paramount. This however has influence for the EU-member-state relationship as the classical understanding of sovereignty is eroded by cybersecurity. As cooperation is key to success within cyberspace there must be policy coherence in order to achieve this. The EU has several institutions to achieve this. This thesis will examine in detail the development of one of its cybersecurity institutions; the European Network and Information Security Agency, ENISA. By connecting the theory of institutionalism and using three mechanisms this agency is used as a casestudy to show how and why ENISA has developed from a small and insignificant agency to a big and influential agency within the span of just fourteen years.Show less
Space activity started as a national ambition during the Cold War and has progressively evolved into an international framework in which states can cooperate. Yet, this cooperation contained flaws...Show moreSpace activity started as a national ambition during the Cold War and has progressively evolved into an international framework in which states can cooperate. Yet, this cooperation contained flaws from earlier on and the current framework dominated by the United States of America (USA) through NASA, bars any attempt of cooperation with China and their national space agency; CNSA. This thesis intends to look at the context in which cooperation emerged in the context of space activity and understands the reasons why this cooperation has been failing. Accounting for these elements, a new cooperative framework will be drafted to overcome the shortcomings mentioned and promote the benefits a USA- China cooperation could bring to the sector of space activity internationally.Show less
The trilateral dialogue, which started in 2008, has exposed the differences in the foreign policy approaches of the EU and China. Where the EU emphasizes its role as a norms promotor (Gerrits ed....Show moreThe trilateral dialogue, which started in 2008, has exposed the differences in the foreign policy approaches of the EU and China. Where the EU emphasizes its role as a norms promotor (Gerrits ed. 2009:3), stresses China its focus on economic win-win situations (Hackenesch, 2011). Yet, as the EU and China have increasing shared interests, a more pragmatic approach to their foreign policies is emerging. China is slowly engaging with normative principles, for instance it has accepted the universality of human rights and has joined several international human rights conventions. The state is more open to normative principles, even though China promotes sovereignty and collective rights over international intervention and individual rights (Pu, 2013). A more pragmatic approach to foreign policy can enable and support trilateral cooperation in explicit areas such as security. Examples of currently existing trilateral cooperation are the joint fight against piracy in the Gulf of Aden, measures against the illicit trade in small arms and light weapons (SALW) and the peacekeeping mission in Mali. Also, the EU currently discusses China’s novel initiative for a modern-day silk road, known as the ‘One Belt, One Road’ (OBOR) initiative and which has been called “the most ambitious infrastructure-based security initiative in the world today”. The title of this work ‘Here Be Dragons’ refers to unexplored and ‘dangerous’ gaps between the EU’s capabilities and its expectations. The purpose of the thesis is to examine the EU’s foreign policy performance, in particular its response to China’s growing presence in Africa, through the lens of the capability-expectations gap theory. According to Hill, a gap exists between what the EU ‘talks about’ and what the EU actually is able to accomplish. This study investigates how the EU’s agenda on trilateral cooperation with China and Africa changed since the entering in to force of the Lisbon Treaty, whether a capability-expectations gap exist regarding the EU’s security relations with China in Africa, and if so, how the EU could establish more effective cooperation the field of security and thus close this gap.Show less
