With the attribution problem of “who has done it” being increasingly easier to solve through better research techniques, the problem shifts towards how to respond to cyber incidents. Egloff &...Show moreWith the attribution problem of “who has done it” being increasingly easier to solve through better research techniques, the problem shifts towards how to respond to cyber incidents. Egloff & Smeets (2021) theorize that states use public attribution statements to set norms of appropriate behavior in cyberspace. To test this hypothesis six cyber incidents over three states, namely the US, UK and the Netherlands, are analyzed through the framework of Finnemore & Hollis (2016). The conclusion is that states do use public attribution to set norms of appropriate behavior in cyberspace. However, this is not always the case and sometimes they promote other norms than those that might have been expected.Show less
In 2018, the US Department of Defense announced its new National Cyber Strategy. With other actors in cyberspace becoming increasingly aggressive and potent, this strategy is designed to establish...Show moreIn 2018, the US Department of Defense announced its new National Cyber Strategy. With other actors in cyberspace becoming increasingly aggressive and potent, this strategy is designed to establish the US as a capable and functional actor in the domain. This new national cyber strategy differs greatly from the previous deterrence-based approach, illustrating a major shift in strategic thinking. The US military has now moved away from deterring enemies through denial and cost imposition, and introduced two new concepts instead: Persistent Engagement & Defend Forward, PE/DF for short. As cyberspace has grown to be the backbone of modern society, this change is significant for both scholars and the rest of the world. Through a case study of the US military, this thesis aims to investigate how this new strategy influenced the manner in which the US military conducts cyber operations. The results of this research show that the US has become significantly more aggressive, pro-active, streamlined, diverse in methods and in general capable in engaging with hostile actors in cyberspace.Show less
Responses to major cyber-attacks diverge because states securitize the concepts of territory, borders, and sovereignty in cyberspace differently. By adopting a framework of critical geopolitics and...Show moreResponses to major cyber-attacks diverge because states securitize the concepts of territory, borders, and sovereignty in cyberspace differently. By adopting a framework of critical geopolitics and securitization theory, this paper explores the influence of geographical assumptions on states’ responses to major cyber-attacks. It argues that a state’s view on the applicability of territory, borders, and sovereignty in cyberspace, provides the state with a rationale for a specific response to a major cyber-attack. This argument is made through case studies of the Estonian response to the 2007 DDoS attacks against Estonia, the U.S. response to the Sony Pictures hack, and the U.K. response to the Wannacry ransomware attack that severely affected the NHS.Show less
This thesis examines to what extent the securitisation model applies to the attempted OPCW hack, the Bundestag hack, and the SolarWinds operation concerning policy implementations. The...Show moreThis thesis examines to what extent the securitisation model applies to the attempted OPCW hack, the Bundestag hack, and the SolarWinds operation concerning policy implementations. The securitisation model analyses the securitising actor’s response to the threat. Further, it analyses whether the securitisation act enabled the securitising actor to implement drastic measures. This thesis uses the case study method and selected the cases with a shared perpetrator and objective. For the findings, this thesis concluded the following for the three cases. The Dutch government completed the securitisation act for the attempted OPCW hack but did not implement drastic policies. For the Bundestag hack, the Federal Government did not complete the securitisation act but did implement drastic measures. The United States completed the securitisation act and implemented drastic policies. Thus, the extent to which the securitisation model explains the response of the victim state differs in each case.Show less
