In the Netherlands, there has been an increase in suicide rates among young adults (20 to 30 years) in the past two years and since 2022 there has been almost a doubling of young people with...Show moreIn the Netherlands, there has been an increase in suicide rates among young adults (20 to 30 years) in the past two years and since 2022 there has been almost a doubling of young people with suicidal thoughts compared to 2021. Because of this rise, we want to gain a deeper insight into factors that might contribute to suicidal thoughts and possible differences between men and women. This is because gender differences are found in suicidal ideation. By exploring risk factors and possible gender differences, early gender-specific interventions can be made. The current study combines quantitative and qualitative data to reach insights by analyzing survey data (N = 1367) and talking with young adults (having suicidal thoughts in the past two years but no active ideation; n = 19) risk factors are explored and interpreted. The analyses conducted were univariate and multivariate LRAs. After a Holm-Bonferroni correction, problems in Mental Health (p < .001), Loneliness (p < .001), and Trauma (p = .001) were positively associated with suicidal thoughts and Social Support (p = .001) was negatively associated with suicidal thoughts. We tentatively conclude that these risk factors play a role in both men and women, and it is important to support all young adults in these fields. It is recommended in further research to separate young adults having recent and long-term suicidal thoughts to gain a deeper understanding of the increase in the past two years.Show less
ADHD is a well-known neurodevelopmental disorder that extends from childhood into adulthood for many individuals. Symptoms of ADHD can be categorized into three subtypes: hyperactivity, inattention...Show moreADHD is a well-known neurodevelopmental disorder that extends from childhood into adulthood for many individuals. Symptoms of ADHD can be categorized into three subtypes: hyperactivity, inattention, and impulsivity. Males typically exhibit more external symptoms, while females tend to display more internal symptoms, such as inattention. However, both genders are diagnosed using the same criteria, resulting in a higher rate of ADHD diagnosis among males. Our understanding of gender differences in the presentation of symptoms, particularly inattention, remains limited. However, exploring the concept of cognitive flexibility becomes relevant when examining inattention, as it encompasses the ability to adapt and shift one's thinking and behavior in response to changing circumstances or tasks. By considering cognitive flexibility, we can gain valuable insights into how inattention may impact individuals with ADHD and potentially contribute to gender differences in symptomatology. A total of 100 participants completed a computer-based task that assessed task-switching performance which measured reaction time and accuracy for switch cost and incongruent cost. A Multiple Regression Analysis was conducted to examine the relationships between gender, inattention, and task-switching performance. The results of the study did not yield statistically significant findings, indicating no substantial gender differences in task-switching performance and its association with inattention in individuals with ADHD. A few limitations of the study include a relatively small sample size and the possibility that females filled in the self- report questionnaire based on their presumption that they are less likely to have characteristics of ADHD. Future studies should focus on larger and more diverse samples to enhance the generalizability of the findings.Show less
Child abuse is a big problem in the Netherlands. A big group of children is structurally exposed to (severe) child abuse. Several risk factors can contribute to the development of child abuse...Show moreChild abuse is a big problem in the Netherlands. A big group of children is structurally exposed to (severe) child abuse. Several risk factors can contribute to the development of child abuse within families. This study aims to investigate whether several aspects of parenting are able to predict the severity of child abuse within families. The sample consisted of 627 Dutch parents that have recently experienced child abuse within their family. The parents filled in self-report questionnaires about themselves, their children and their experiences with child abuse under the supervision of student-researchers. Topics covered in the questionnaire were, among others, the experience of child abuse within the family, the way situations were handled, the level of experienced parenting stress, the level of warmth and involvement shown to the child(ren) and the professional help that the family received. Results showed that the level of parenting stress that parents experience is a positive significant predictor of the severity of child abuse within families. The level of warmth and involvement that parents show towards their children appeared to be a negative significant predictor of the severity of child abuse. However, the level of parental warmth and involvement did not seem to play a significant role in the relationship between parenting stress and severity of child abuse. Gender of the parent was a nonsignificant predictor of the severity of child abuse and did not seem to play a significant role in the relationship between parenting stress and severity of child abuse. The results of the study show that parenting stress can be an important risk factor for severe child abuse, while parental warmth and involvement may be an important protective factor. It is important to take these aspects into account when offering professional help and in future research.Show less
Ingroup bias is the inclination of people to favor members of their group compared to those of an outgroup. One possible underlying mechanism behind ingroup bias is individual differences in...Show moreIngroup bias is the inclination of people to favor members of their group compared to those of an outgroup. One possible underlying mechanism behind ingroup bias is individual differences in empathy levels. Individuals high in empathy are usually more prosocial towards others. Yet, they may still act more prosocially towards members of their own group than outgroup members, leading to a specific type of ingroup bias, termed intergroup empathy bias. It is a well-established fact that gender differences exist in how individuals show empathy. This study aimed to find whether there may also be gender differences in intergroup empathy bias. This question was investigated in a university population using the dot game to divide people into minimal groups, and the dictator game to compare ingroup and outgroup giving. The results demonstrated that ingroup bias can occur in the presence of minimal groups, and females have higher empathy levels compared to males. However, these results did not translate to gender differences in intergroup empathy bias. Despite not finding a link between intergroup empathy bias and gender, this research proposes novel ideas for further testing, such as using empathy questionnaires that distinguish between different facets of empathy. It attracts attention to the importance of gender differences in empathy, especially in today’s male-centered society.Show less
Externalizing behavioral problems refer to the extreme way in which an individual may express his or her emotions, often due to a lack of skills to control feelings. To avoid robust problematic...Show moreExternalizing behavioral problems refer to the extreme way in which an individual may express his or her emotions, often due to a lack of skills to control feelings. To avoid robust problematic behavior patterns in later life that are difficult to correct, it is important to be able to detect externalizing behavioral problems in primary school-aged children. However, the perception of what constitutes problematic behavior may differ depending on the type of observer. In particular, parents may view their child’s behavior differently from teachers. The purpose of this research was to examine potential differences between teachers and parents in the judgement of externalizing behavioral problems of primary school-aged children. Also, it was investigated whether differences in judgment depended on a child’s gender or social-cognitive skills. Participants were primary school children from Amsterdam between 5 and 12 years old who exhibited high levels of externalizing behavior at school and at home, and who were siblings of delinquents and/or failed to attend school on a regular basis (N = 178; 73.6% boys). Teachers and parents provided judgments of externalizing problem behaviors using the Child Behavior Checklist and the Teacher Report Form; the Social Cognitive Skills Test was used to measure social-cognitive skills. Results showed that there was a significant difference between parents and teachers: teachers more often concluded a child exhibited externalizing problem behavior. In addition, no gender differences in teacher-parent judgement of externalizing behavioral problems were found. Lastly, social-cognitive skills did not predict externalizing problem behaviors according to parents and teachers, and gender did not influence this association. It can be concluded differences between parents and teachers with regards to judging the degree of externalizing problems are already present in young children, regardless of their gender or social-cognitive skills.Show less
Research master thesis | Developmental Psychopathology in Education and Child Studies (research) (MSc)
open access
The gender gap in STEM majors and careers is very prominent and alarming (Beilock & Maloney, 2015). Students are more likely to avoid STEM careers when they show higher levels of Mathematics...Show moreThe gender gap in STEM majors and careers is very prominent and alarming (Beilock & Maloney, 2015). Students are more likely to avoid STEM careers when they show higher levels of Mathematics Anxiety (MA; Ahmed, 2018). The current study investigates the difference in Mathematics Anxiety between male and female students in their first year of the preacademic educational track (HAVO, atheneum and gymnasium) in secondary school in the Netherlands. The Numerical Dot-Probe Task (NDPT) is a computerized task that is based on attentional bias and less susceptible to bias than self-report questionnaires. (Rubinsten, Eidlin, Wohl, & Akibli, 2015). Related concepts to MA that will be controlled for are; mathematical achievement, general anxiety and working memory. Participants were recruited using convenience sampling, the final sample consisted of seven students. Using the adapted t-test, z-scores of all participants were compared in order to answer the research question (Crawford, Garthwaite, & Wood, 2010). 100% of girls and 20% of boys showed higher levels of MA when looking at their scores on the self-report questionnaires compared to their score on the NDPT. Overall, the girls’ MA score was overestimated and the boys’ MA score was underestimated. However, this effect was not strong enough to result in an overrepresentation of girls and an underrepresentation of boys in the population of children with high levels of MA when looking at the self-report questionnaires. Results suggested that the prominent gender gap in STEM studies might not be due to gender differences in MA. Due to the smaller sample size, it is important that these findings are replicated in future studies using bigger samples. Stereotype threat is a variable that could explain the STEM gender gap and should thus be included in these future studies.Show less
The academic gender gap resulting from the underperformance of males in educational settings negatively impacts individuals and society at large (Wobbekind, 2012). Since research has shown an...Show moreThe academic gender gap resulting from the underperformance of males in educational settings negatively impacts individuals and society at large (Wobbekind, 2012). Since research has shown an association between self-regulation and school achievement (Robson et al., 2020; Skibbe et al., 2019; van Tetering et al., 2020), investigating this cognitive measure in the academic context is highly relevant. For this reason, a quantitative meta-analysis was conducted to examine whether school-age males possess inferior self-regulation skills compared to females. A literature search identified 22 relevant studies based on the inclusion criteria. The statistical analysis with a random-effect model showed that there are significant differences in self-regulation between males and females (SMD = -0.15; 95% CI [-0.25, -0.04], p = 0.006, 95% PI [-0.95, 0.66]). Additionally, the present study examined self-regulation before and after puberty, as research suggests that gender differences in this cognitive measure are the most prominent in childhood and decrease in youth (Coyne et al., 2015; Lenroot & Giedd, 2010). The analysis with age as a grouping variable included 19 publications. Results of a random-effect model analysis showed significant differences in self-regulation between the groups, with χ2 (1) = 5.56, p = 0.02. Overall, findings from the present study imply that interventions aimed at improving self-regulation in males before they finish puberty are a promising way of tackling the academic gender gap, which could lead to numerous benefits associated with better educational outcomes (Bell et al., 2022; Breton, 2013; Brunello et al., 2017; Ross & Wu, 1995).Show less
This study examined the relationship between three different measurements of children’s social interactions at school: self-reports measuring loneliness in group integration and intimacy, peer...Show moreThis study examined the relationship between three different measurements of children’s social interactions at school: self-reports measuring loneliness in group integration and intimacy, peer nominations and sensor data taken from free play during recess. Furthermore, the gender differences in the level of social interactions were assessed. A total of 216 primary school children participated in this research with a mean age of 10.5 years (SD = .94). Correlations were found for peer nominations (mutual nominations and best friend nominations) with self-reported sense of integration and percentage time interacting (sensor data). No other correlations appeared. Moreover, when testing for possible gender differences in the level of social interactions, girls reported feeling more peer intimacy (less lonely in the context of intimate friendships) when compared to boys. This was the only gender difference found in this research. Taking everything in consideration, it is sensible that primary education focuses on social interactions and loneliness since friendship is a crucial part of a child’s development. However, schools could still focus more on gender differences in social interactions and loneliness. Furthermore, based on this research outcomes, some questions arise about (non)-existing gender differences and differences with existing literature. This indicates the need for more in-depth research in the future.Show less
It has been suggested that power provides both opportunities for promoting the achievement of one's own goals and responsibilities for the outcomes of those who are dependent on the power-holder....Show moreIt has been suggested that power provides both opportunities for promoting the achievement of one's own goals and responsibilities for the outcomes of those who are dependent on the power-holder. In our study we investigated whether sex and gender identity influence the construal of power as either opportunity or responsibility in a variety of power contexts, while also examining the possible moderating role of personality traits. Power was manipulated by priming participants in a high or low power condition, by requesting them to describe a situation in which they felt powerful or powerless. There were also questions about the meaning they ascribed to that power, while their gender identity was measured by a recently developed scale. Our results showed that participants in the high power condition were more likely to construe their power as both an opportunity and a responsibility than the participants in the low power condition and that femininity is associated with the construal of power as a responsibility irrespective of the level of power. Females construed their power as a responsibility more than males only when we controlled for neuroticism, openness to experience and their stability of power. Limitations and implications of the study are discussed.Show less
Background and aim: Although literature suggests that quality of life (QoL) in women with substance use disorders (SUDs) is lower than in men, it remains unknown whether this 1) applies to SUD...Show moreBackground and aim: Although literature suggests that quality of life (QoL) in women with substance use disorders (SUDs) is lower than in men, it remains unknown whether this 1) applies to SUD patients with psychiatric comorbidities in the Netherlands; and 2) whether there is a gender difference in QoL gain during treatment. This study therefore aimed to compare QoL (gain) between genders. Because research linked mood problems to worse QoL and substance usage in women, it was also the aim to compare genders in the association between (change in) mood problems and (change in) QoL. Methods: The longitudinal design involved data of day-patient treatments between 2018-2020. Sixty nine females and one hundred and thirty males with SUDs and comorbidities were assessed, using the EQ-5D-3L and the ICECAP-A. Analysis of variance and moderation analyses were performed with multiple imputation, controlling for treatment group. Results: At pretest, QoL in women was significantly lower when compared to men. There was no significant gender difference concerning gain in QoL, as well as regarding the association between mood problems and QoL at pretest and posttest. Conclusions: Women with SUDs and comorbidities experience lower QoL than men, a gender gap that is less profound in the normal population. Stigma and adverse life conditions arguably play a role. There is no evidence that men and women profit differently from treatment. In any case, mood problems, trauma experiences and meaningful activities could be considered more in future studies, as their association with QoL seems to be critical.Show less
Self-driving vehicles are not a science fiction novelty anymore, but an upcoming reality. For widespread usage to occur, it is important for people to be able to trust automated vehicles. This...Show moreSelf-driving vehicles are not a science fiction novelty anymore, but an upcoming reality. For widespread usage to occur, it is important for people to be able to trust automated vehicles. This study investigates how trust evolves in drivers experiencing “reliably unreliable” vehicle behaviour, compared to drivers who experience a single critical event in an otherwise reliable vehicle. The gender difference in trust in self driving vehicles is also researched and its possible connection with risk-taking attitude. An online survey is used. Respondents first answered a few general questions and then filled in a risk taking attitude questionnaire and the pre-test version of the modified trust in automation scale. Afterwards the participants were put in either the ‘poor driving condition’ or the ‘perfect driving condition’. The respondents watched eight self-driving simulation videos on their computer and filled in the post-test version of the modified trust in automation scale after each video. Respondents experiencing ‘reliably unreliable’ vehicle behaviour did not change significantly in trust and respondents experiencing a single critical event recovered immediately in trust. According to Wayne and Miller (2018) and Bergdahl (2005), women are less confident in their driving abilities than men. Our study confirms that women have a lower trust in automated vehicles than men. No gender difference in risk taking attitude was found. The risk-taking attitude also did not correlate with the trust in automated vehicles. For future research we recommend to use physical driving simulations. Also, since the risk-taking attitude did not explain the gender difference in trust in automation, we recommend further investigation of how females differ in perceiving the dangers of risky driving.Show less
This study was developed to contribute to the current body of research by investigating whether gender influences drawing skill, and whether this effect was mediated by parental support. The Beery...Show moreThis study was developed to contribute to the current body of research by investigating whether gender influences drawing skill, and whether this effect was mediated by parental support. The Beery Visual-Motor Integration Test (Beery VMI) was administered to 68 children, with ages ranging from 3 to 7 years, and their parents were asked to fill out a questionnaire. The data was collected at three primary schools in The Netherlands and the questionnaires could be filled out online. To test the effect of gender on drawing skill, an independent sample t-test was conducted. This showed that girls scored significantly higher on the Beery VMI than boys (p < .01). To test whether parents showed support to a different extent based on gender of the child, another independent sample t-test was conducted. This finding showed no significant effect (p = .938). Finally, a mediation analysis was conducted to test whether parental support mediated the effect of gender on test score. This turned out to be a non-significant effect (p = .938). Based on these findings, it can be concluded that girls score higher on drawing skills than boys, parents support boys and girls to the same extent, and parental support does not mediate the effect of gender on drawing skills. These findings implicate the need for schools to adjust their general (art) curricula to an individualized one, and advise future research to address possible influential factors on test score, besides parental support.Show less
Changing people’s behavior is sometimes of vital importance. However, it seems some people are not always willing to adapt, no matter how many valid reasons are provided. These observations may...Show moreChanging people’s behavior is sometimes of vital importance. However, it seems some people are not always willing to adapt, no matter how many valid reasons are provided. These observations may indicate the effect of a confirmation bias at play. This study aimed to research existence of confirmation bias in a reinforcement learning environment, while using gender as its main predictor to explore possible differences with the intent to better understand behavioral change resistance. The study had a 2 x 2 within-subjects design. 112 participants performed an instrumental learning task involving factual and counterfactual reinforcement learning, in part derived from a previous study by Palminteri et al. (2017). Following exclusion criteria, 99 participants were included for analysis (age = 25.29, SD = 13.27; 81.82% females). Contrary to expectations, statistical analysis showed no evidence of a non-zero mean confirmation bias in the population (Z = -1.260, p = .208, r = -.127). Additionally, no relation was found between the ability to adapt and confirmation bias (rs(97) = .197, p = .051), strengthening the previous finding. A difference in confirmation bias between men and women could not be supported by this study (U = 717, p = .913, r = -.01). Though these results were unexpected, they exposed opportunities to improve confirmation bias testing by controlling for autocorrelation of choice, metacognition and mental states. Finally, though results may have been influenced by effects from the current COVID-19 pandemic, it also provides a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity to study these effects by replicating this study afterwards.Show less
Research concerned with emotion perception has typically relied on posed, static stimuli, and employed a forced-choice paradigm, limiting ecological validity and likely overlooking biases in...Show moreResearch concerned with emotion perception has typically relied on posed, static stimuli, and employed a forced-choice paradigm, limiting ecological validity and likely overlooking biases in perception. The current study employed an alternative methodology to assess differences in perception of real and matching avatar faces, as well as in their perceived intensity and judgment confidence. Additionally, the effects of gender of the perceiver, gender of the stimulus, and exposure to violence in videogames were examined. Seventy-nine participants were presented with 64 real and matching avatar expressions and rated the extent to which they perceived eight different emotions, as well as their judgment confidence and the intensity of the stimuli. On average, less happiness, and more anger and disgust was perceived in the avatar than real faces. Additionally, real stimuli received higher average ratings of intensity and confidence than their avatar counterparts. Finally, in contrast to previous research, gender of the stimulus and of the perceiver, as well as the exposure to violence in videogames had no effect on emotion perception. The cluster analysis uncovered several patterns in participants’ interpretations, suggesting unequivocal perception of emotions in stimuli. Overall, these findings suggest that the process of interpreting facial expressions is too complex and heterogenous to be fully captured by forced-choice paradigms. The study contributes to the field of emotion perception by proposing a methodology better suited to examine individual differences and biases in emotion perception.Show less
Adherence to lifestyle changes like a healthy diet in type 2 diabetes patients is low and can result in a low Quality of Life. Previous research has shown that intranasal insulin, as a new form of...Show moreAdherence to lifestyle changes like a healthy diet in type 2 diabetes patients is low and can result in a low Quality of Life. Previous research has shown that intranasal insulin, as a new form of treatment, can have a side-effect of potentially decreasing hunger in food consumption in healthy men, but not in healthy women. The effect of intranasal insulin, and possible gender-specific responses, has not been investigated in diabetes type 2 patients yet. This is important as it might result in a decreased disease burden, risk of complications through increased treatment adherence to lifestyle changes. Research questions were: 1) Is the effect of intranasal insulin on food consumption different for women and men? and 2) Is the possible gender-effect of intranasal insulin on food consumption also found in diabetes type 2 patients and healthy subjects? It was hypothesized that men would eat less than women as a response to intranasal insulin in both the healthy participants as well as the type 2 diabetes patients. The study had a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled design. The 26 participants came to the lab on two consecutive days. On day one, half of them were given the intranasal insulin spray and half were given a placebo spray. On day two, all were administered the placebo spray. Afterwards, participants were presented with bowls of healthy snacks on both days. A 2x2x2 repeated-measures ANOVA was conducted to analyse possible gender effects. 1) there was no main effect of gender (p= .302), nor significant difference in food consumption (p= .213). The interaction was non-significant (p= .552). 2) there was no main effect of gender (p = .645), no main effect of group (p = .982), and no significant difference in food consumption (p = .400). The interaction was non-significant (p = .693). No gender-effects in food consumption as a response to intranasal insulin could be found. Putting the study on hold due to the COVID-19 pandemic, resulted in unknown group membership and a small sample size. Future research may add a questionnaire measuring self-efficacy and intention to investigate behavioural tendencies on (un)healthy food consumption as they could moderate the effect of intranasal insulin.Show less
Background. Sensory processing problems and impaired social skills are often seen in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Moreover, understanding the gender gap in ASD prevalence and...Show moreBackground. Sensory processing problems and impaired social skills are often seen in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Moreover, understanding the gender gap in ASD prevalence and symptomatology is still not achieved. Studies are inconsistent in findings regarding gender specific ASD symptomatology and possible underlying mechanisms of gender differences. This study investigated the relationship between sensory processing and impaired social skills, and whether a mean difference exists in sensory processing symptoms between ASD boys and girls with similar social skills. Method. In this cross-sectional study 169 children (aged 7-12) participated, of which 96 typically developing (TD) and 58 ASD children. All were tested on social skills, measured through the Social Responsiveness Scale and on sensory processing problems, which was mapped out by measures of tapping accuracy, using the DrumPad 2.0 as a rhythmic measurement device. The relationship between sensory processing and social skills was investigated with the use of a Spearman’s Rho test. Mean differences in sensory processing between ASD boys and girls with similar social skills were investigated with the use of a 2x2 ANCOVA. Results. After performing Spearman's Rho test, a significant positive relationship was found in the overall sample between social skills and tapping accuracy. The 2x2 ANCOVA did not prove a significant effect of gender on mean tapping accuracy, but a significant main effect of social skills on the mean tapping accuracy was found. No significant interaction effect of gender and social skills was found. Discussion. Results indicated that social skills and tapping accuracy are associated, and that – after correction for age – social skills have an effect on tapping accuracy, irrespective of gender. To our knowledge, this is the first time that sensory processing was measured through a rhythmic device. This study contributes to the existing literature regarding gender-specific symptomology in ASD.Show less
Multiple studies suggest that worse sleep quality would lead to a worse mood the next day. It is important to address this issue, because mood is an essential factor regarding someone’s quality of...Show moreMultiple studies suggest that worse sleep quality would lead to a worse mood the next day. It is important to address this issue, because mood is an essential factor regarding someone’s quality of life. However, it is not clear how this works for children. Another issue that comes forward is that it is unclear how gender moderates this relationship. We investigated the moderating effect of gender on the relationship between sleep quality and mood in 82 normally developing children (Age M= 7.44; SD=.61; age range 7-9; 43% boys). Sleep quality was defined as sleep efficiency and was measured with actigraph watches the children wore at night. Parents filled in diary questions about their children’s affective mood states: valence, energetic arousal and calmness. We looked at the influence of one night of sleep on mood the next day. We did not find a relationship between sleep efficiency and mood. This shows that mood in normal developing children is not affected by sleep efficiency. We also researched if gender moderates the relationship between sleep efficiency and mood. The effect of sleep efficiency and mood was the same for boys and girls. This finding strengthens the idea that gender differences only become apparent after the onset of puberty. Therefore it does not matter if you are a boy or a girl: one bad night of sleep will not affect your mood the next day.Show less
