The theory of adult romantic attachment, originating from Bowlby’s attachment theory, suggests that romantic partners create attachment bonds similar to that of the child-parent. Attachment styles...Show moreThe theory of adult romantic attachment, originating from Bowlby’s attachment theory, suggests that romantic partners create attachment bonds similar to that of the child-parent. Attachment styles can be primarily distinguished depending on the levels of anxiety and avoidance a partner exhibits in a bond. This study investigated the roles of gender and age in differences in adult romantic attachment. Male and female participants with an age range of 18 to 70 years from 171 countries completed the Experiences in Close Relationships Scale Questionnaire, a two-dimensional self-report instrument. Firstly, the results showed that females scored higher than males on anxiety and avoidance scales. Further findings demonstrated that gender and age contribute significantly to the prediction of anxiety and avoidance scores. Lastly, gender differences in avoidance scores, but not anxiety scores, were significantly moderated by age, whereby the differences between males and females in avoidance decreased as participants’ age increased (from age 18 to 70). Taken together, this study’s results provide evidence for statistically significant gender differences within adult romantic attachment and suggest attachment variability across different ages.Show less
Financial scarcity and one’s income have long been studied in relation to people’s financial risk-taking behaviors. In recent years, however, a more recent concept has been introduced in the field...Show moreFinancial scarcity and one’s income have long been studied in relation to people’s financial risk-taking behaviors. In recent years, however, a more recent concept has been introduced in the field of economic psychology research, perceived financial scarcity, which refers to one’s subjective perception of their own financial standing. Considering its novelty, perceived financial scarcity has not been the subject of much research, and its relation to risky behavior even less so. The purpose of this study was to explore the associations between perceived financial scarcity and two dimensions of risk behavior, risk preference and risk tolerance, as well as observe the potential moderating effect of gender on these relationships. Using a sample of 100 participants recruited through an online platform, the results of our research indicated positive associations between risk preference and risk tolerance, in addition to a significant relationship between perceived financial scarcity and risk tolerance. Interestingly, no gender differences were found when testing risk preferences with perceived financial scarcity, while a significant effect of gender was uncovered for the association between perceived financial scarcity and risk tolerance. The results of the study can hopefully provide more clarity regarding the differences between risk preference and risk tolerance, in addition to providing more information that could break down harmful gender stereotypes.Show less
Financial scarcity and one’s income have long been studied in relation to people’s financial risk-taking behaviors. In recent years, however, a more recent concept has been introduced in the field...Show moreFinancial scarcity and one’s income have long been studied in relation to people’s financial risk-taking behaviors. In recent years, however, a more recent concept has been introduced in the field of economic psychology research, perceived financial scarcity, which refers to one’s subjective perception of their own financial standing. Considering its novelty, perceived financial scarcity has not been the subject of much research, and its relation to risky behavior even less so. The purpose of this study was to explore the associations between perceived financial scarcity and two dimensions of risk behavior, risk preference and risk tolerance, as well as observe the potential moderating effect of gender on these relationships. Using a sample of 100 participants recruited through an online platform, the results of our research indicated positive associations between risk preference and risk tolerance, in addition to a significant relationship between perceived financial scarcity and risk tolerance. Interestingly, no gender differences were found when testing risk preferences with perceived financial scarcity, while a significant effect of gender was uncovered for the association between perceived financial scarcity and risk tolerance. The results of the study can hopefully provide more clarity regarding the differences between risk preference and risk tolerance, in addition to providing more information that could break down harmful gender stereotypes.Show less
Itch is an unpleasant sensation that induces scratching and is often accompanied by psychological distress. Chronic itch, such as psoriasis or atopic dermatitis (eczema), has a lifetime prevalence...Show moreItch is an unpleasant sensation that induces scratching and is often accompanied by psychological distress. Chronic itch, such as psoriasis or atopic dermatitis (eczema), has a lifetime prevalence of 22% and often carries a marked psychological burden. Catastrophising of itch symptoms can inhibit coping, increase scratching and lower mood, which maintains scratching and creates a vicious cycle. The relationship between sex, gender and chronic itch is not well understood. More broadly, sex and gender differences often go overlooked – this is called the gender data gap. Therefore, the first research question was, to what extent does catastrophising affect the quality of life of patients with chronic itch? The second research question was, to what extent is there a difference in how catastrophising affects the quality of life of men and women with chronic itch? 27 patients with chronic itch (psoriasis or atopic dermatitis) filled in the Pain Catastrophising Scale (PCS) adjusted for itch and the Dermatology Life Quality Index (DLQI) online. Contrary to expectations, a simple linear regression analysis showed that catastrophising was not a significant predictor of quality of life. Furthermore, a multiple regression analysis showed that catastrophising does not affect the quality of life of men and women differently. Importantly, the results are limited by low sample size, lack of control variables and the use of convenience sampling. Further research into the relationship between itch catastrophising, quality of life and gender could greatly impact the lives of patients with chronic itch.Show less
Conflict resolution is an inherent aspect of human interactions, representing an essential skill for achieving desirable outcomes. Moreover, recognizing individual differences during conflict may...Show moreConflict resolution is an inherent aspect of human interactions, representing an essential skill for achieving desirable outcomes. Moreover, recognizing individual differences during conflict may help understand the origins of different opinions and develop targeted strategies to solve disagreements. This study investigates whether gender and age differences influence attack investment during a conflict task in which both sides compete for different reasons. Based on research showing that women display less preference for competition, I predicted that women invest less in attack than men. Similarly, considering studies on the risk-averse behavior of older generations, I expected older individuals to invest fewer resources in attack than younger people. Three hundred one participants performed an online computer-based decision-making game following the outline of the attacker-defender contest. Participants were randomly assigned to the attacker or defender role. Depending on the role, the tasks involved deciding how to use monetary units (MU) to attack the opponent or protect one’s endowment. Attack investment was defined as the amount of MU assigned to overpower the opponent by obtaining their resources. The results contradicted the predictions, as age and gender were not significant predictors of attack investment. Therefore, this study challenges potential stereotypes claiming aggressive behavior to be more prevalent for a particular age group or gender. I discuss factors such as revising the research design and considering other individual differences that may impact the results’ significance. Altogether, recognizing and leveraging people’s unique characteristics may benefit interactions by encouraging the work toward achieving beneficial results for all parties involved.Show less
Negotiating is an intricate process and crucial to finding success in all facets of life. Constructs such as stereotype endorsement and threat, social motives and power distributions play an...Show moreNegotiating is an intricate process and crucial to finding success in all facets of life. Constructs such as stereotype endorsement and threat, social motives and power distributions play an important role in negotiations. Negotiations are not limited to dyads; often they take place in a group setting. Whilst both men and women negotiate, there appear to be differences in performance between the two. The question that this paper looks to address is what the influence of stereotype endorsement and stereotype threat is on the outcome of both pro-self and pro-socially motivated, mixed gender groups, where power is dispersed unequally. The two main hypotheses that follow are that men in the leadership position will outperform women in the leadership position in the pro-self motivated condition. Furthermore, groups with a female leader will outperform groups with a male leader in the pro-socially motivated condition. To investigate this, 204 participants were recruited into 68 three person groups, comprising 105 men and 99 women. They played a negotiation game, emulating the owners of a beach club. Their scores and answers on a questionnaire following the game were brought into analysis. Results show that men and women perform better or worse depending on the social motive and the power distribution of the negotiation. Also, the leader is especially impacted by stereotypes surrounding their gender. The differences between men and women might be explained by the effects of gender stereotypes. Being aware of the influence of gender stereotypes on negotiation performance might serve individuals well in order to increase their performance in negotiations.Show less
This research aimed to investigate the engagement of work-life balance (WLB) crafting in entrepreneurs by examining two predictors, growth pursuit and gender difference (males vs. females). It was...Show moreThis research aimed to investigate the engagement of work-life balance (WLB) crafting in entrepreneurs by examining two predictors, growth pursuit and gender difference (males vs. females). It was hypothesized that growth pursuit would negatively predict WLB crafting among entrepreneurs, and that female entrepreneurs engage less in WLB crafting than male entrepreneurs. One hundred forty-two entrepreneurs participated through Prolific Academic by filling out a cross-sectional and correlational study. The questionnaire consisted of demographic and business information, as well as the scales to measure growth pursuit and WLB crafting. The results extracted from the 2-hierarchical multiple regression analysis indicated that Hypothesis 1 was not supported because growth pursuit positively and significantly predicted WLB crafting engagement. Additionally, Hypothesis 2 was also not supported as the effect was not significant, indicating that there was no remarkable difference between male and female entrepreneurs in their level of engagement in WLB crafting. The findings suggest that entrepreneurs who strive to grow their business also aim to maintain a WLB crafting at the same time so that they can prevent potential losses resulting from stress and burn-out. Moreover, the findings also suggest that gender does not predict the entrepreneur's engagement in WLB crafting.Show less
Power can be construed in terms of opportunities or responsibilities. The current research examined the effect of in biological sex, gender, gender identity and gender on the power construal of...Show morePower can be construed in terms of opportunities or responsibilities. The current research examined the effect of in biological sex, gender, gender identity and gender on the power construal of power holders. Female gender identity and role were hypothesized to be associated to power construal in terms of responsibility (rather than opportunity), while male gender identity and role were hypothesized to be associated to power construal in terms of opportunity (rather than responsibility). This was examined by administration of a questionnaire. Respondents consisted of male and female professionals in leadership roles from the UK. The study found that female gender identity and femininity are positively related to power construed in terms of responsibility. No significant relationships between gender identity and power construal as opportunity were found. This highlights the relevance of gender on power construal in terms of responsibilityShow less
The present study investigated the effect of female identification on power perception and climate consciousness. It was hypothesized that female identification would lead to perceiving power as a...Show moreThe present study investigated the effect of female identification on power perception and climate consciousness. It was hypothesized that female identification would lead to perceiving power as a responsibility and that a stronger sense of responsibility increases an individual’s climate consciousness. This was tested with UK participants (N = 251) which are working in management and leadership positions, taking part in a questionnaire; data was followed up by two linear regressions and a mediation analysis. The results showed that, in line with expectations, women perceived their power more as a responsibility than men did. However, unexpectedly, responsibility and climate consciousness were negatively correlated. Therefore, individuals identifying as female were not more climate conscious because of their heightened sense of responsibility in leadership positions. The opposite effect was found for male identification, as through their decreased sense of responsibility the mediation analysis led to an increased climate consciousness. Therefore, the hypotheses in this study were only partly confirmed. The outcomes have practical implications for human resource management and politics, as certain characteristics can be determined for the “right” leadership positions. Given the necessity of climate change, more research is needed to examine which leadership characteristics would serve the best outcomes for the environment.Show less
Literature has demonstrated that power can be construed as a responsibility or as an opportunity. However, a better understanding is needed on how gender roles influence power construal. This study...Show moreLiterature has demonstrated that power can be construed as a responsibility or as an opportunity. However, a better understanding is needed on how gender roles influence power construal. This study investigated whether diverse gender identities tend to construe power differently. Furthermore, it also explored whether culture orientation – individualism and collectivism – and socioeconomic status influence the relationship between gender and power construal. It was hypothesized that: gender would not influence power construal; that individualism predicts power construed as an opportunity, and collectivism as a responsibility; and finally, that higher scores in objective and subjective measures of socioeconomic status led to power appraised as an opportunity. To test these hypotheses, gender was measured with a continuous variable. Culture orientation was assessed with four dimensions of horizontal and vertical individualism and collectivism. Lastly, objective and subjective socioeconomic status was measured by age, education, household income, and by the MacArthur Scale of Subjective Social Status. The results demonstrated that a stronger feminine identification was associated with a stronger tendency to construe power as a responsibility. Findings concerning culture orientation and socioeconomic status confirmed the predictions. Age was also revealed as a significant predictor of power as an opportunity. The results regarding gender were interpreted in terms of social identification. Results on culture and socioeconomic status were discussed in terms of how these constructs serve as relevant social identities influencing the construal of power. Although more research is needed, the results highlight the importance of assuming power construal within specific social and economic contexts.Show less
Power is not merely a structural or relational construct but also a psychological state; power influences the way an individual is inclined to act, treat others, and to make decisions. Power can be...Show morePower is not merely a structural or relational construct but also a psychological state; power influences the way an individual is inclined to act, treat others, and to make decisions. Power can be construed as a responsibility or as an opportunity and the specific construal of power determines the eventual action a powerholder will take. When it comes to positions of power, there is no shortage of individuals at powerful positions who exhibit narcissistic personality traits. This research aims to investigate the influence that narcissistic personality traits, in combination with gender, have on the construal of power. To investigate this relation the following hypothesis was formulated: Male leaders with stronger narcissistic personality traits will construe their power in an opportunistic manner significantly more than female leaders with stronger narcissistic personality traits and male leaders with low narcissistic personality traits. 250 participants with leadership positions were surveyed on gender, power construal and narcissistic traits. Results showed that narcissistic personality traits have a significant, positive effect on the construal of power as opportunity and a significant, negative effect on the construal of power as responsibility. The effect of gender was not found in this study. The results are discussed in terms of the current research and suggestions for the future. This study demonstrates that powerholders with higher narcissistic traits are more likely to interpret their power as opportunity, and less likely to interpret their power as responsibility, regardless of gender.Show less
In this study, the association between brand personality and purchase intention is investigated, in order to contribute to branding and consumer psychology literature. Alongside that, moderating...Show moreIn this study, the association between brand personality and purchase intention is investigated, in order to contribute to branding and consumer psychology literature. Alongside that, moderating role of gender and mediating role of trust are looked at. Hypotheses about brand identities; brand competence and brand morality, were tested with a questionnaire with 102 respondents. The results showed that both brand competence and brand morality have a positive relation with purchase intention. Relation between brand competence and purchase intention is mediated by brand trust but gender is not a moderator of the relation between brand morality and purchase intention. The findings contribute to theory about brand personalities and their influence can be expanded so that brands know what type of brand consumers like and how they should form their image to generate the most purchases.Show less
Gezichtsuitdrukkingen zijn een van de meest belangrijke en krachtige manieren van mensen om emoties te communiceren. Gezichtsuitdrukkingen ontstaan door activatie van bepaalde gezichtsspieren. Een...Show moreGezichtsuitdrukkingen zijn een van de meest belangrijke en krachtige manieren van mensen om emoties te communiceren. Gezichtsuitdrukkingen ontstaan door activatie van bepaalde gezichtsspieren. Een groep gezichtsspieren die samen een actie uitvoert, zoals het optrekken van de binnenkant van de wenkbrauw wordt een Action Unit (AU) genoemd. OpenFace is een softwareprogramma dat AU’s detecteert die zijn gekoppeld aan zes basis emoties. Bij onderzoek hiernaar wordt voornamelijk gebruik gemaakt van geacteerde emotionele gezichtsuitdrukkingen. Er is nog relatief weinig bekend over ‘niet-geacteerde’, ‘spontane’ emotionele gezichtsuitdrukkingen en de classificatie hiervan door OpenFace. Tevens is weinig bekend over genderverschillen in de evaluatie van emotionele gezichtsuitdrukkingen. In deze studie is de samenhang onderzocht tussen OpenFace evaluaties en participant-evaluaties van (semi-)spontane emotionele gezichtsuitdrukkingen en genderverschillen daarbinnen. De steekproef van deze studie betrof 78 participanten, die videosegmenten van (semi-)spontane emotionele gezichtsuitdrukkingen hebben geëvalueerd op basis van de zes basis emoties. Met correlatietoetsen is samenhang gevonden tussen de evaluaties van de participanten en OpenFace. Ook is een genderverschil gevonden in de evaluaties. Er is geen verschil gevonden in de samenhang die de verschillende gendergroepen hadden met OpenFace. Deze bevindingen zijn een startpunt voor vervolgonderzoek, dat kan beantwoorden welke alternatieve AU-combinaties mogelijk aanwezig zijn bij (semi-)spontane emotionele gezichtsuitdrukkingen en de genderverschillen binnen de herkenning daarvan.Show less
Mimicry facilitates social bonding and increases the feelings of affiliation and liking. However, not every individual perceives mimicry in the same way. Previous research showed that there are...Show moreMimicry facilitates social bonding and increases the feelings of affiliation and liking. However, not every individual perceives mimicry in the same way. Previous research showed that there are consistent differences among various groups. Nevertheless, previous studies failed to establish whether gender can also play a role in evaluating explicit mimicry. Unlike the previous studies, the focus of this research is implicit mimicry. Since mimicry does not always occur on explicit level, investigating mimicry that occurs on implicit level, such as pupil dilation mimicry, might lead to a different result. In this study, the aim is to investigate whether gender has an influence on the evaluation of avatars which mimic or does not mimic the participants pupil dilation. For the purposes of this study, avatar is defined as an artificial intelligence figure representing a real person. To test the effect of gender on mimicry, 19 females and 10 males interacted with 6 avatars. 3 of them mimicked the participant’s pupil dilation while the other 3 avatars did not. Afterwards, participants evaluated how much they liked the avatar and how much they would like to meet the speaker in real life. Overall, female participants evaluated both mimicking and non-mimicking avatars more negatively than the male participants. However, female participants reported a higher desire for the future interaction with non-mimicking avatars in comparison to males. The study did not yield a significant result. However, the difference between genders in mimicry evaluation was still observed.Show less
How humans attend to emotional stimuli has been extensively researched. Previous studies have found that there are individual differences in attentional preference towards emotional stimuli. For...Show moreHow humans attend to emotional stimuli has been extensively researched. Previous studies have found that there are individual differences in attentional preference towards emotional stimuli. For example, some individuals attend more towards positive information, whereas some towards negative stimuli. Individual’s anxiety level has often been linked to cause attentional preference towards threatening stimuli. Less is known about the other possible factors modulating attentional processing of emotional stimuli. Socioemotional Selectivity theory presents that with age adult start to prefer activities and information that is meaningful and positive and avoid things that are negative. The theory also implies that younger people are often more drawn to negative aspects in their life. Thus, this study aimed to investigate, whether this age-related preference towards emotional stimuli is also seen in attentional functions. Moreover, some preliminary studies have found there to be gender differences in how humans attend to emotional stimuli. Thus, the study aimed to bring more clarity to the possible gender-related attentional preference towards emotions. To test this the participants (N = 102, males = 29, women = 73) completed a dot-probe task. The dot-probe task allows to calculate how much attention individual showed on certain type of facial expressions. The study found that age was non-significant predictor of attentional processes toward angry and happy faces. Moreover, no gender differences were found on attentional bias towards happy faces, but small directional evidence for women allocating more attention to angry faces than men. These findings imply that age and gender are not strong predictors for attentional preferences towards emotions.Show less
Individuals with hearing loss (HL) have a range of social difficulties. Previous studies are suggesting that individuals with HL have fewer communication opportunities in comparison to typically...Show moreIndividuals with hearing loss (HL) have a range of social difficulties. Previous studies are suggesting that individuals with HL have fewer communication opportunities in comparison to typically hearing (TH) individuals, therefore have problems developing social strategies and competence. However, research is still lacking for prosociality in (pre-)adolescence with HL. The current study investigated spontaneous helping behavior in (pre-)adolescents with and without hearing loss, while also taking looking and smiling behaviors into account as prerequisite non-verbal communicative cues. 233 (pre-)adolescents between the ages of ten and sixteen took part in the study (Mean age= 146.71 months, SD=17.04), out of which 177 were TH and 56 had HL. Our results demonstrated that individuals with and without HL did not differ in their looking, smiling and spontaneous helping behaviors. There was no difference found in the target prosocial behavior between the different genders, parental education levels, or school types. Furthermore, age at amplification was found unrelated to looking and helping behaviors. Given our non-significant findings, we discuss the possible limitations of our research design such as group imbalances and lack of emphasis on certain individual differences, and address the literature gap in this particular clinical group during (pre-)adolescence.Show less
