Master thesis | Classics and Ancient Civilizations (MA)
open access
Athena's aegis, her characteristic magical garment, often features a scaly texture, a fringe of snakes, or the head of the gorgon Medusa. These attributes sometimes make Athena look like a hybrid...Show moreAthena's aegis, her characteristic magical garment, often features a scaly texture, a fringe of snakes, or the head of the gorgon Medusa. These attributes sometimes make Athena look like a hybrid monster in ancient Greek art and literature. This thesis explores the scope of literary and artistic representations of Athena in which her aegis constructs her body as a monstrous, boundary-crossing hybrid. I explore four contexts or themes in which Athena’s body interacts with the monstrous through the medium of the aegis: gender, costume, monster battles, and image ontologies. In each context, the monstrous aegis places Athena’s body in multiple categories simultaneously: masculine and feminine, hybrid and humanoid, god and monster, image and moving body. It is an agent of transformation. I argue that this polymorphism grants Athena a similar fantastical or unrealistic body to a hybrid monster. She is an excellent vector for artistic and literary explorations of the nature, limits, and transgression of cultural and ontological taxonomies. Rather than only signifying dominion over the monstrous, as is conventionally argued, the hybridity of the aegis allows Athena to function in a similar fashion to a monster.Show less
Bronze mirror production was at its peak during the Goryeo dynasty (918-1392 CE) of Korea. This resulted in an unprecedented range of sizes, shapes and motifs. A mirror’s purpose is, by definition,...Show moreBronze mirror production was at its peak during the Goryeo dynasty (918-1392 CE) of Korea. This resulted in an unprecedented range of sizes, shapes and motifs. A mirror’s purpose is, by definition, to reproduce the image placed in front of it. Interestingly, Goryeo bronze mirrors have been recovered from graves and Buddhist temple complexes, indicating that they also served ritual functions. Considering 508 mirrors from ten museums, this study investigates the relation of mirror iconography to mirror use, answering the research question: to what extent did the iconographic attributes of Goryeo bronze mirrors reflect their meaning and role in society? This research found that a number of recognisable motifs could point to a mirror’s use in a particular context. As grave gifts, bronze mirrors were valuable objects, associated with high status and wealth. This inherent auspicious meaning was reinforced by the symbolism in the interred mirrors’ iconography, denoting values such as longevity, beauty and love. The bronze mirrors used in Buddhist rituals display religious symbolism in their designs, such as bells, images of deities and scenes from scriptures. A comprehensive analysis of the exact role played by these religious mirrors is beyond the scope of this thesis, but could be researched further through the examination of scriptures and other primary literature. As secular items used for personal grooming, bronze mirrors were luxury items indicative of their owners’ social standing. Increasing the value of mirrors as status symbols even further was the appropriation of Chinese motifs, as this signified an appreciation of Chinese culture in agreeance with the education that was expected of those with high social standing. In this way, identifying a bronze mirror’s iconographic theme can help clarify the context in which it was once used. However, Goryeo bronze mirrors’ functions were not mutually exclusive, and the presence of religious and secular mirrors in funerary contexts suggests that they could play various roles throughout their use-life.Show less
This research project serves as a case study to examine whether queer theory and traditional iconography can be two distinct yet interrelated entry ways through which a fifteenth century artwork...Show moreThis research project serves as a case study to examine whether queer theory and traditional iconography can be two distinct yet interrelated entry ways through which a fifteenth century artwork can be more cohesively understood. In order to do so it questions how the St Sebastian Triptych (ca. 1493-94) by the Master of the Holy Kinship, at display in the Wallraf-Richartz Museum in Cologne, constitutes meaning as a painting-with-doors in its format and iconography, and how it articulates its own queerness. This research finds that the Triptych should be understood as a ‘panel with doors’. The Triptych contains painted clues on the inner and outer sides of the wings which demarcate the different spaces of the triptych and connect the inner and outer sides. The narration has the form of a ‘representatively hidden narration'. It appears that the St Sebastian Triptych constitutes its meaning through a gendered juxtaposition of the themes ‘martyr’ and ‘healer’ in the outer and inner wings. St Sebastian is both martyr and healer because of Christ, of which he is an image bearer. The outer wings introduce both themes by juxtaposing female martyr saints opposite to male healer saints. This gendered juxtaposition is also present in the inner wings, where it is applied to St Sebastian’s life and death. The tripartite format allowed the Master of the Holy Kinship to thematically oppose the wings, while he used the middle panel as a place of synthesis. The middle panel merges the opposed elements of the inner side wings. The result is a strongly ambiguous middle panel in which the body of St Sebastian forms the axis and apogee. St Sebastian is shown here both as martyr and healer, passive as well as active, feminine yet male. It is this ambiguity which grants this triptych its enchantment and religious and emotional power. This ambiguity is also the reason why the St Sebastian Triptych can be called ‘queer’. The triptych expresses its queerness in the sensuality and ambiguity of St Sebastian’s body in the middle panel, because it transcends the gendered division as presented in the outer wings. By thematizing pain (martyrdom) and redemption (healing), the St Sebastian Triptych ultimately refers back to Christ’s passion and resurrection. The St Sebastian Altarpiece is part of a larger Christian tradition of hagiographies and visual arts in which an overlap between pain and seduction and between fear and desire is frequent.Show less
This thesis presents an interdisciplinary study including archaeological and philological evidence. It is concerned with the development of musical entertainment and the socio-cultural value and...Show moreThis thesis presents an interdisciplinary study including archaeological and philological evidence. It is concerned with the development of musical entertainment and the socio-cultural value and function of music in ancient Mesopotamia in the late 4th and 3rd millennium BCE. It also investigates changes in the form, venue and occasion of performances which are continuously affected by trajectories such as the period, religion, politics, technology, and style. It includes the classification of ancient instrument according to modern types on the basis of iconographical and archaeological materiel, as well as the identification of the most important instrument names in ancient Sumerian literary texts. Moreover, it concerned with different contexts of musical performance. A survey of depicted scenes has led to the definition of various topics which are structured in a rough chronological order according to their initial appearance. They are explained on the basis of archaeological, iconographical and / or literary evidence. This scholar-imposed scheme allows to examine instruments in their performative function. Thus, it is possible to investigate the socio-cultural role of music in certain historical periods from different perspectives and provides information about characteristics of political, intellectual or religious life. A catalogue of the all iconographic and archaeological attestations featuring musical instruments dating to the late 4th and 3rd millennium BCE as well as a survey of the Sumerian literary text corpus referring to musical performances are the foundation of this study.Show less
Between 1520 and 1720, the depiction of the board game Verkeren, an old-Dutch variant of Backgammon, thrived on Dutch prints and paintings. In this period, two hundred and fifty images appeared,...Show moreBetween 1520 and 1720, the depiction of the board game Verkeren, an old-Dutch variant of Backgammon, thrived on Dutch prints and paintings. In this period, two hundred and fifty images appeared, depicting the board game in different settings and context. Over the years, much research has been done on chess, cards and iconography of images in the Golden Age. The meaning of the game Verkeren has, however, never been studied. To decipher the contemporary meaning of Verkeren in prints and paintings, Panofsky’s iconographic method, De Jong’s theory, and the method of comparison is applied in order to decipher the contemporary meaning of Verkeren in prints and paintings. This thesis dives deeper into the connotation of the board game, which needs to be played with both dice and intellect. The dice with its unpredictable outcome makes the game favourable for gamblers to bet. The gambling was associated with excessive drinking and squandering of money and could result in the neglect of family and/or a visit to a brothel. Therefore, Verkeren was seen as a vice and was mainly linked pride and idleness. These vices fitted perfectly in the spirit of the Golden Age, where the new upcoming, wealthy middle class had to determine their norms and values and had to face their pitfalls. The rich youth with their licentious behaviour, like fornicating, drinking, and gambling needed to be kept in line. Whereas authorities tried to control the gambling by regulating Verkeren, artists warned their viewers with compositions containing a moralistic and often humorous narrative, in which Verkeren served as an example of vice.Show less
It has often been claimed that the bull fulfilled an important role in Bronze Age Greece. The reason for this is that many representations are found during excavations in this area. However, the...Show moreIt has often been claimed that the bull fulfilled an important role in Bronze Age Greece. The reason for this is that many representations are found during excavations in this area. However, the assumption that the male bovine had an essential role seems mainly to be based on assumptions, preconceptions about prehistory and later Greek myths. This thesis seeks to provide a more objective perspective on the situation and combines iconographic material, faunal remains and Linear B texts to give a more complete image. The focus lies on the Late Bronze Age, a period from which most data is available. The main question is what role the bull played in Late Bronze Age Greece, in religious and secular spheres and how these roles relate to each other. Every chapter is dedicated to a sub-question. For the iconographical material a methodology is used focussed on the recognition of behaviour and characteristics of the depicted bovine; this has never been done before in this field of research. Based on the analysis it is concluded that the bull played an important role as a prestigious animal used for sacrifice and bull games. Furthermore, a possible connection with the military is established. However, the religious role of the bull remains as yet disputable.Show less
A sample of zoomorphic adornos, unearthed at the site of El Flaco (13th - 15th century CE) in the northwest of the Dominican Republic, has been ichnographically analyzed, based on the three-stage...Show moreA sample of zoomorphic adornos, unearthed at the site of El Flaco (13th - 15th century CE) in the northwest of the Dominican Republic, has been ichnographically analyzed, based on the three-stage model as developed by Panofsky (1939), to discover the cultural meaning of the animals identified on the adornos in the known creation narratives and cosmology of the Taíno peoples. This is expected to contribute to the generally unknown cultural relevance of adornos to the pre-colonial communities in the Caribbean archipelago. The iconographical analysis has revealed a close association between the adornos, and the known cosmological views and creation narratives of the Taíno peoples, as recorded by Ramón Pané. A diversity of animals have been identified on the adornos, which include bats, turtles/tortoises, frogs/toads, primates, crocodiles, lizards, rodents and birds. These animals appear to be associated with the spirits of departed ancestors, seduction/deception, fertility, shamanism and the maintenance of a balance between the three realms of the Taíno cosmos.Show less
Research master thesis | Archaeology (research) (MA/MSc)
closed access
This thesis examines the significance of the concept and representation of angels from the 5th until the 15th century in Egypt and the adjacent Nubian Kingdoms (Makuria, Nobadia and Alwa). This is...Show moreThis thesis examines the significance of the concept and representation of angels from the 5th until the 15th century in Egypt and the adjacent Nubian Kingdoms (Makuria, Nobadia and Alwa). This is done by examining the political and religious history of both areas, and looking at religious continuity and change. It operates from the idea that religion is not a static concept that exists in boxed-in entities, but a process in flux, in which past and present practises are always interacting. Within this interaction, in this case between traditional Egyptian and Nubian religion and Christianity (and Islam), we see that angels fulfil an important role. This role of angels is examined through looking at textual evidence (mainly magical texts), a small amount of archaeological finds, six case studies in which angelic imagery in (excavated) religious buildings is looked at. This concerns the sites Bawit, Saqqara and St. Antony in Egypt, and Dongola, Faras and Banganarti in the Nubian Kingdoms. At these sites, many depictions of angels can be found, each of which are rich in iconographic and stylistic data. Comparing the iconography of the various sites gives us insights in the similarities and differences between Egyptian and Nubian iconography and styles, which is in part informed by their respective political histories. One such difference is the difference in focus and size between the two areas: angels in Nubian buildings are much larger and more the centre of the scene than they are in Egypt, and seem to play a role in the legitimisation of Nubian Kingship. When compared with the available textual evidence, it becomes clear they are of great significance to the Nubian and Egyptian peoples, and display a number of similarities with earlier gods, symbols and practises. Iconographically too, there are similarities to be found between angels and ancient Egyptian gods, as well as traditional Roman art. In this way, the angels seem to be an important part of the ever changing religious landscape, and take up an important place in the lives of the Egyptian and Nubian people in the time period under consideration. They seem to have been part of a cult, which is evidenced both in personal piety through spells and texts, and more organised religion through for example the dedication to the archangel Raphael of the churches at Banganarti. Angels play an important role in both organised religion and more personal piety, and seem part of the transition between ‘pagan’ religions and Christianity.Show less
In modern research of the Central Mexican manuscripts, the Codex Laud has always remained in a position of obscurity. Barely a handful of comprehensive studies of this codex have been published...Show moreIn modern research of the Central Mexican manuscripts, the Codex Laud has always remained in a position of obscurity. Barely a handful of comprehensive studies of this codex have been published over the past century. Mostly, the Codex Laud is only mentioned briefly in studies of other divinatory codices, and simply regarded as one of the Borgia Group codices, often serving as material for comparison with the other codices of this group. As such, a closer look at this codex is warranted. In this thesis, a single page of the Codex Laud takes the centre stage: page 23, the second-to-last page of the codex, which features a complex composition of calendrical and various other elements around a single central figure. This page forms the subject for a detailed analysis using the iconographical method of Panofsky in order to gain insight into the various layers of meaning hidden within its imagery. In this manner, this thesis will attempt to do what the ancient Mexican diviners did – to determine the associations and meaning(s) of the page in all its aspects and contexts.Show less
Research master thesis | Archaeology (research) (MA/MSc)
open access
Olmec feline imagery has been a subject of interest among scholars for many years. Several sites in the Gulf Coast area and Guerrero contain examples of these well-debated images, as well as the...Show moreOlmec feline imagery has been a subject of interest among scholars for many years. Several sites in the Gulf Coast area and Guerrero contain examples of these well-debated images, as well as the Formative Olmec site of Chalcatzingo, where a number of reliefs and monuments show the depiction of composite feline animals with clear avian characteristics. This research aims to investigate how these images are related to the worldview of the inhabitants of the site by comparison with similar material from the Olmec area. Herewith the concepts of ‘nahualism’ and ‘corporate art’ will be applied to the interpretation of the carvings and their significance to the society. The first concept refers to the ability to transform oneself into an animal alter ego, while the latter term indicates the use of architecture and monuments to ascertain a strong political power within a given community. Building on research previously conducted by Mesoamerican scholars, individual fieldwork at the site of Chalcatzingo, and a final iconographical analysis, the conclusions of this research have shed light on the social organization, exchange, and belief system of the Olmec region. As opposed to the mother-culture theory, it has become evident that the Olmec societies were part of a large network of interactions, where a dominant ideology was spread over an area extending from Guerrero, Mexico to as far as Honduras. The Olmec style art that is present in these settlements strongly reflects the worldview of the people, where the leader is regarded as being of divine descent, as is shown by his ability to transform into a nahual. With the capacity to communicate with the spirit world the Olmec ruler was placed in the absolute centre of the universe. These aspects are also visualized within the feline carvings of Chalcatzingo, which depict several generations of leaders in their nahualistic transformations. In most occasions these feline rulers are seated upon human individuals to indicate their power and dominance to the society, while the iconographical elements of the carvings clearly show the symbolic relation to the celestial realm. The latter aspect is also visible in other reliefs at the site, representing the important task of the leader to ask the spirits for fertile rains that would allow crops to grow in the relatively dry area of the settlement. Herewith the concept of ‘corporate art’ becomes clear, where the leader’s status was reflected and reinforced with the use of the present artworks. In the site of Chalcatzingo, the feline carvings located on the highest of the mountains thus reflect the dominant ideology that exists within Formative Olmec societies, symbolizing the eminent link that is present between the ruler and the sky.Show less
Several scholars argue that the ‘order’ of the Vestal virgins (the Vestales) can be compared to the class of matronae, because they are presumed to wear the same clothing and their social role is...Show moreSeveral scholars argue that the ‘order’ of the Vestal virgins (the Vestales) can be compared to the class of matronae, because they are presumed to wear the same clothing and their social role is similar. In this study, the comparison between the two groups is critically examined and the exact differences and similarities are discussed. Investigating second and early third-century Vestal statues from the Atrium Vestae in the Roman Forum, comparing them to statues of matronae from the same periods but different contexts, I demonstrate that the Vestales have been perceived by the Romans as a separate group, clearly distinguishable from matronae. Differences in details such as hairstyle, standing position, facial expression, and the interaction with the viewer show that Vestales and matronae are not the same. Some Vestales are more matrona-like than others, and the expected characteristics of matronae perhaps need to be redefined. Furthermore, the four points of comparison in which the two classes of women differ are precisely those that can be used for display of self-representation. Thus, matronae are proven to be more concerned with this than Vestales. Moreover, it is argued that the scholars that made the comparison between the two female groups have been subjected to gender influence. In conclusion, the comparison an sich is perhaps less useful with respect to the fact that Vestales need to be examined in relation to their religious group, whereas matronae should be regarded as part of a secular social context.Show less
