In the early Edo period (17th century), Christianity was persecuted in Japan after about a century of missionary activities by European priests. The Japanese persecution used fumi-e, ‘trample...Show moreIn the early Edo period (17th century), Christianity was persecuted in Japan after about a century of missionary activities by European priests. The Japanese persecution used fumi-e, ‘trample images’, to force converts to apostatize. This thesis analyses an extant fumi-e from the Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde, and aims to answer how this fumi-e can be used as an illustration of the process of mutual exchange and adaptation, also called transculturation, that occured before and during the persecution. Using Panofsky’s iconological analysis, the image on the fumi-e can be identified as a depiction of the Madonna of the Rosary. Art featuring this motif was brought to Japan by European missionaries. The fumi-e shows stylistic influences from non-European artistic traditions. These are reminiscent of the art made by Japanese students of the Jesuits, Japanese Buddhist art, the yamato-e style, and nanban art. These influences can be explained by placing the object in the context of the persecution. The Volkenkunde fumi-e was specifically made for the persecution, as a replacement of the worn-out initial fumi-e that consisted of paintings and other fragile items. Using other extant fumi-e featuring the same motif, the development and gradual change of the ‘Madonna of the Rosary’ image can be seen. This change can be explained by the lack of European examples due to the ongoing persecution, and the process of transculturation that had already begun with the first missionaries. This process of transculturation can be seen in other aspects of the persecution as well. The government systematized three major ways of persecution, which can be seen as methods of surveillance and population control. These methods were social control in the form of the goningumi system and offering rewards to informants, monitoring in the form of obligatory registration at Buddhist temples and the compilation of population registers, and tests of faith using the fumi-e. These methods did not only impact Christians, but became part of the fabric of Japanese society, and affected the shape of Japanese Buddhism as well. Furthermore, they asserted the authority of the Tokugawa government. The persecution also helped shape a narrative about identity, in which Christians served as the ‘Other’ against which ‘Japaneseness’ could be contrasted. Echos of this narrative can be seen throughout the Edo period extending into early Meiji, and even in contemporary attitudes towards (Western) foreigners. The Volkenkunde fumi-e illustrates all these points. Its visual qualities show the artistic exchange in the ‘Christian Century’, while its purpose and use demonstrate how the subsequent persecution transformed society by providing methods for population control, assertion of authority for the Tokugawa bakufu, and creating a narrative about identity. It is therefore both a product and an illustration of the transcultural process that occured in the encounter between Japan and Christianity.Show less
