Prosocial behavior, defined as any action taken to benefit another, has maintained persistent interest in regarding its intricate relationship with loneliness and apathy. Loneliness, conceptualized...Show moreProsocial behavior, defined as any action taken to benefit another, has maintained persistent interest in regarding its intricate relationship with loneliness and apathy. Loneliness, conceptualized as a subjective feeling of social isolation is often found comorbid with apathy; one’s reduced motivation to put in effort for others’ benefit relative to one’s own benefit. Although all three variables demonstrate a relationship to one another, research remains scarce regarding their shared impact. However, findings show a positive influence of prosocial behaviors on social connections, consequently decreasing experiences of isolation as well as apathy. This investigation aims to uncover the potential mediating effect of prosocial behavior on the bidirectional relationship of loneliness and apathy. To fill the gap in the literature, assessing both models helps highlight intervention approaches aiming to effectively break the cycle – ultimately improving well-being. Higher levels of loneliness are expected to indicate higher levels of apathy, whereas prosocial behaviors may mediate and limit the negative affect. Ultimately, it is also expected higher levels of apathy lead to higher levels of loneliness, with prosocial behavior possibly mitigating this negative affect. 287 participants underwent a behavioral task assessing their prosocial tendencies, as well as questionnaires measuring their level of loneliness and apathy. Both mediation analyses revealed a significant total effect between the variables. This was indicative of a negligible mediating role of prosocial acts. These results underline the specific gaps left for future research, ranging from exploring the nuanced relationships and contextual factors involved affecting the constructs over time.Show less
This 3-wave study aims to examine the relationship between cognitive empathy (awareness and understanding of another’s emotion), affective empathy (experience of emotions consistent with those of...Show moreThis 3-wave study aims to examine the relationship between cognitive empathy (awareness and understanding of another’s emotion), affective empathy (experience of emotions consistent with those of the observed person), and self-perception of close friendships (one’s perception of the ability to form and maintain close friendships), both directly and indirectly through prosocial behavior (voluntary behavior intended to benefit another person) from late childhood to early adolescence. Participants were 127 adolescents aged between 10 and 14 years old who reported on their empathy, prosocial behavior, and self-perception of close friendships in three consecutive years, respectively. Simple mediation analyses revealed that cognitive and affective empathy did not have a significant positive effect on adolescents’ self-perception of close friendships two years later. Considering these findings, prosocial behavior was not found to be a mediator between adolescents’ cognitive or affective empathy and their self-perception of close friendships from late childhood to early adolescence. Moreover, cognitive and affective empathy did not significantly predict prosocial behavior one year later, whereas prosocial behavior did significantly predict the self-perception of adolescents’ close friendships one year later. These results underline the significance of developing tailored intervention programs targeting prosocial behavior to foster adolescents’ self-perception as close friends, a competence that is crucial during this developmental period considering the greater influence of peers.Show less
Stress can profoundly influence one’s behavior. Evidence suggests that the fight-or-flight response to stress causes reduced prosocial behavior. While men seem prone towards the fight-or-flight...Show moreStress can profoundly influence one’s behavior. Evidence suggests that the fight-or-flight response to stress causes reduced prosocial behavior. While men seem prone towards the fight-or-flight reaction, it has been proposed that women instead exhibit a stress response of nurturing and affiliation, termed the tend-and-befriend response. However, there is inconsistent evidence for whether stress differentially impacts prosociality across the sexes. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the effect of sex and stress on prosocial behavior. We proposed that females would be more prosocial during stressful periods, while males would display the opposite pattern. This study was part of a larger research project involving a repeated-measure design with two time-points. Stress was naturalistically manipulated by comparing prosociality during an exam period and an exam-free period. 136 university students completed a prosocial effort task, which measured how much effort one would exert for someone else, compared to themselves, to obtain a reward. A repeated measures ANOVA revealed that there was no significant interaction between sex and stress levels affecting prosociality. In addition, prosocial behavior levels did not differ across the time points. However, females were found to be significantly more prosocial than males overall. The results of the prosocial effort task may have been confounded by other factors such as attachment security, while not properly measuring affiliation. Stress operationalization and personal characteristics may explain the absence of a relationship between stress and prosocial behavior. The higher prosocial behavior among females can be attributed to gender roles. Potential future research directions are discussed.Show less
This study investigated the interaction between social class and perceived economic mobility on prosocial behavior. Previous research has provided mixed evidence on whether social standing affects...Show moreThis study investigated the interaction between social class and perceived economic mobility on prosocial behavior. Previous research has provided mixed evidence on whether social standing affects prosociality. Furthermore, a knowledge gap exists in understanding how beliefs about personal economic mobility may moderate this relationship. This study aimed to establish whether social class increases prosocial behavior and if perceived economic mobility influences the relationship between social class and prosociality. The experimental design assessed prosociality through a giving game with 362 participants randomly assigned to different ranks (i.e., a proxy for social class) and mobility conditions. Results showed that higher-ranked individuals were more prosocial than those from lower ranks. Additionally, individuals perceiving high economic mobility were more prosocial than those perceiving low mobility. Nevertheless, the relationship between social class and prosociality remained stable regardless of mobility levels. These findings highlight potential socioeconomic determinants of prosocial behavior, encouraging interventions fostering fair and equitable societies.Show less
The relationship between socioeconomic status (SES), subjective social status (SSS), stress and prosocial behavior remains a topic of debate in science with conflicting theories and contradictory...Show moreThe relationship between socioeconomic status (SES), subjective social status (SSS), stress and prosocial behavior remains a topic of debate in science with conflicting theories and contradictory results. Correctly understanding the meaning of the relationship can contribute to promoting socioeconomic equality in society through targeted interventions. The three main objectives of this study were to investigate whether 1) SES and SSS predict prosocial behavior; 2) SES predicts prosocial behavior while controlling for SSS; 3) Stress affects the outcomes in question 1 and 2, when comparing a stressful context to a non- stressful context. The research was conducted through a two-session repeated measure design, one during a stressful period of exams and once during a non-stressful period without exams, measuring university students’ well-being and academic performance in association to prosocial behavior. 502 students from universities throughout the United Kingdom were recruited through the online platform Prolific. The experiment took place online and consisted of a behavioral task measuring prosocial behavior, assessing how much work participants would be willing to do to obtain a reward for themselves versus for a fictive participant, followed by self-report questionnaires. Results indicated that: 1) SES and SSS did not significantly predict prosocial behavior; 2) SES did not significantly predict prosocial behavior while controlling for SSS; 3) Stress did not significantly affect the outcomes in question 1 and 2, when comparing a stressful context to a non-stressful context. Limitations to the study include unmet assumptions of normality and linearity, a generalizability bias and a potential motivation bias. Future studies should consider random sampling and making use of an in-person experimental setting. This study highlights the possible complexity of the relationships between SES, SSS, stress and prosocial behavior and thus calls for further investigations.Show less
This study examined the roles of organizational morality, organizational sociability, individual empathy (empathic concern and empathic perspective taking), and individual altruism on willingness...Show moreThis study examined the roles of organizational morality, organizational sociability, individual empathy (empathic concern and empathic perspective taking), and individual altruism on willingness to donate money to non-profit organizations among members of the general public who are atypical to the organization. This study had a cross-sectional design with 98 participants (N= 98) who were atypical to the organizations that were presented to them. The first multiple regression analysis showed that organizational morality and organizational sociability, while controlling age and gender, relate directly and positively to willingness to help the non-profit organization. The second multiple regression analysis showed that individual empathic concern, but not individual empathic perspective taking and individual altruism, relate directly and positively to willingness to help the organization while controlling the age and gender. The third multiple regression analysis showed that individual empathy (empathic concern and empathic perspective taking), but not individual altruism, while controlling age and gender, relate directly and positively to willingness to donate money. The mediation analyses showed that organizational morality, organizational sociability and individual empathic concern relate indirectly and positively to willingness to donate money to non-profit organizations via willingness to help as mediator. The moderation analyses showed that individual empathic concern and individual empathic perspective taking do not significantly strengthen the association between sociability and predicting willingness to help the organization. The third moderation analysis showed that individual altruism does not significantly strengthen the association between organizational morality and willingness to help. These findings suggest that organizational morality, organizational sociability, individual empathy, but not individual altruism, have an effect on willingness to donate money to nonprofit organizations among people who are atypical to the organization. Theoretical and practical implications; strengths and limitations; and suggestions for new research are discussed.Show less
It is understood that perceptions and experiences of social mobility can influence decision making outcomes. How it may impact one’s decision to be prosocial is less researched. It is hypothesized...Show moreIt is understood that perceptions and experiences of social mobility can influence decision making outcomes. How it may impact one’s decision to be prosocial is less researched. It is hypothesized that through the meritocratic mechanisms of the American dream, viewing everyone as capable of climbing the social ladder, individuals’ sensitivity towards the needs of the poor is decreased. Given America’s emphasis on the meritocracy, the research aim is of greater interest: whether the interaction between, and independent impact of perceptions and experiences of social mobility, influence charitable giving in the form of donation amount. The study was conducted via a survey on Prolific that sampled American respondents’ perceived and experienced mobility, and the opted donation amount to charity. Non-significant statistical analyses determined the absence of an interaction between these factors. Likewise, perceived social mobility does not correlate with charitable giving, the reasons for which are examined. Significant negative and positive correlations were found between experienced social mobility with: charitable behavior and perceived social mobility. The former is discussed to operate via the ‘hot and cold’ empathy mechanism, and the causality of the latter is explored. The findings of this research deviate from other data but generates novel avenues for further investigation. Additionally, the study highlights substantial experienced downward mobility and a perceived low chance for social mobility in the United States.Show less
A majority of research in social sciences has been focused on peer preference throughout childhood and adolescence. Different factors have been found to be related to peer preference such as...Show moreA majority of research in social sciences has been focused on peer preference throughout childhood and adolescence. Different factors have been found to be related to peer preference such as emotion recognition, empathy, and prosocial behavior. In addition, prior research has shown possible sex differences regarding peer preference and the mechanisms and factors that influence how girls and boys choose which peers they prefer. In the present study participated 135 normally developing preschoolers, aged three to five, from different areas of Portugal, with the aim to investigate the socio-emotional factors that are related to peer preference. In detail, data for peer preference were gathered through the use of peer nomination techniques. Data on emotion recognition, empathy, and prosocial behavior- the social-emotional factors in this research- were gathered with parent questionnaires. The results were not as expected, as there were no correlations found between peer preference with empathy and prosocial behavior in the sample. However, a small negative correlation was found between peer preference and emotion recognition. Furthermore, none of the three factors could predict peer preference. Lastly, there were no significant differences between boys and girls regarding the relationship of preference with emotion recognition, empathy, and prosocial behavior. There is a possibility that the results were unexpected as the measuring techniques that were used were inappropriate for the variables that needed to be measured. Additionally, the cognitive and emotional level of preschoolers might not be yet advanced to the degree that is required to demonstrate empathy and prosocial behavior at a level that will influence the formation of peer preference. Still, peer preference during preschool years is of the utmost importance as it influences not only the present developmental level but also the future socio-emotional development of children.Show less
Dilated compared to constricted pupils have been found to increase several prosocial behaviors and impressions in interaction partners, including trust decisions, as well as ratings of friendliness...Show moreDilated compared to constricted pupils have been found to increase several prosocial behaviors and impressions in interaction partners, including trust decisions, as well as ratings of friendliness and attractiveness. Dilated pupils have also been found to decrease lying in a coin-toss game where lying harmed the other person. It has been suggested that this decrease in lying might be caused by enhanced social bonding. Since increased attractiveness has also been linked to enhanced social bonding, this study investigated, whether perceived attractiveness mediates the relationship between pupil size and lying. To investigate this, a coin-toss game has been used where the participants were asked to make private predictions about the outcome of a coin-toss. They were then asked whether or not their predictions were correct. For each correct prediction, they earned some money, and their interaction partner lost some money. For each incorrect prediction, only their partner earned some money. The passive interaction partner was a confederate wearing contact lenses with either dilated or constricted pupils. After this coin-toss game, they were asked to rate their interaction partner’s attractiveness. The relationship between pupil size and lying, as well as the mediation of attractiveness, were found to be non-significant. Therefore, attractiveness does not seem to mediate the relationship between pupil size and lying. These results do not fit earlier findings. A number of possible explanations are suggested for the unexpected results. However, more research is needed to investigate these suggestions and to fully understand the effect of pupil size on lying.Show less
Research has found significant effects of social class on prosocial behavior, but diverging findings for the influence of political ideology. In this study, the aim was to find out whether ideology...Show moreResearch has found significant effects of social class on prosocial behavior, but diverging findings for the influence of political ideology. In this study, the aim was to find out whether ideology influences prosociality towards people of a low or a high social class. This was investigated by conducting an online experiment with liberals and conservatives (N = 294), where they engaged in the social mindfulness (SoMi) task, which served as a measure for prosocial behavior. For the SoMi task, the participants were told to imagine they had an interaction partner who was either of a low social class or high social class. My hypotheses for this research were that liberals would treat targets of a low social class more prosocially than conservatives (H1), that conservatives would treat targets of a high social class more prosocially than liberals (H2) and that the tendencies towards low-class targets would be mediated by perceptions of deservingness and compassion towards them (H3). Although these hypotheses could not be confirmed, there was a significant effect of target class on social mindfulness, indicating that lower-class targets elicited more prosocial behavior than higher-class targets, in line with previous research. In addition to that, political ideology had a significant effect on social mindfulness when controlling for age, which showed that those identifying as very liberal acted more prosocially than those identifying as conservative.Show less
How we behave in social contexts influences essential life aspects such as quality of relationships and well-being. Here, actions may have positive or negative consequences for others. Notably,...Show moreHow we behave in social contexts influences essential life aspects such as quality of relationships and well-being. Here, actions may have positive or negative consequences for others. Notably, patients suffering from obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) display inflated responsibility attitudes and often fear negatively affecting others. This study investigated whether participants high in obsessive-compulsive symptoms (OCS) display enhanced learning to benefit others in a prosocial learning task. Healthy individuals of two samples (N = 95; N = 86) performed the task in three responsibility contexts. Participants in the first study learned to obtain rewards for 1) no one, 2) an anonymous other, or 3) themselves. Participants in the second study learned to obtain rewards for a friend instead of no one. Groups of low and high scorers were created based on the participants’ scores on the Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory-Revised (OCI-R). The results did not reveal support for a relationship between OCS and prosocial behavior. Further, high OCS learned similarly to obtain rewards in anonymous and public prosocial contexts. Additionally, in both studies, participants learned best to obtain rewards for themselves. Results suggest that responsibility contexts do not modulate high OCS participants’ learning. This unexpected pattern may be explained by the absence of negative consequences for others. The present study also suggests that individuals, in general, may show enhanced motivation for effort when they can obtain a reward for themselves. Future research should investigate whether individuals who score low and high on OCS exhibit differences in obtaining rewards and preventing punishment.Show less
