The Early Bronze Age of the Southern Levant was a period of immense change and developing complexity. One of the greatest transformations of this period was the erection, maintenance and...Show moreThe Early Bronze Age of the Southern Levant was a period of immense change and developing complexity. One of the greatest transformations of this period was the erection, maintenance and modification of fortifications systems characterised by circum-settlement walls and additional elements such as towers, gates and bastions. While fortifications are almost always referred to in academic works on the period, a more focused investigation of them is needed. Also the recent focus on ascribing a non-military socio-symbolic function has resulted in confusion and varying views as to the actual function(s) of such fortification systems in the Early Bronze Age, which remains largely undefined and a matter ongoing debate. Why were they built? This paper serves to address this by investigating the primary function(s) of Early Bronze Age fortifications. This has been undertaken foremost via a contextual examination of a selected sample of Early Bronze Age fortification systems found at various sites across the Southern Levant – to ascertain whether they are indicative of (or at least consistent with), superfluous to or indeed compromising to a pattern of military architecture. This has been supplemented by other lines of evidence such as the presence of weapons, destructions, human remains and textual and artistic material. While alone these are often ambiguous correlates, their sum in combination with the specific analysis of the elements of the actual fortification systems at the selected sites supports the conclusion the primary function for Early Bronze Age fortifications in the Southern Levant was a military one. Other socio-economic functions of these fortifications have also been identified though these were secondary and did not compromise the defensive integrity of the whole system.Show less
Investigates predictive modeling for bronze hoards in the Netherlands (Drenthe). After investigating the issues and requirements for this, a model is constructed using fuzzy logic.
This thesis focuses on a large warrior grave (nr 6) found in a Merovingian cemetery in Uden, North-Brabant. In 2014 this cemetery was discovered when a road was constructed. An archaeological...Show moreThis thesis focuses on a large warrior grave (nr 6) found in a Merovingian cemetery in Uden, North-Brabant. In 2014 this cemetery was discovered when a road was constructed. An archaeological excavation was carried out by Archol bv in cooperation with Leiden University. Besides 26 inhumation graves, the excavation also uncovered a settlement dating from the Merovingian period to the central Middle Ages. This makes the site of Uden-Schepersweg special as it is one of the few Merovingian cemeteries studied in relation to a settlement. Several graves were lifted en bloc and brought to the Restaura restauration laboratory in Haelen (NL). The X-ray photographs made there revealed the true nature of the finds. Grave 6 stood out as it contained a sword, a seax , a lance, two glass vessels, pottery, silver inlaid mounts of a belt but above all a large set of elaborately silver inlaid iron mounts of horse gear. The thesis is based on the research question what the meaning is of grave 6 in the context of the cemetery and in a supra-regional context. After discussing the development of Uden and the surrounding area, the Schepersweg site and previous research there, the thesis continues to discuss the Merovingian period (450-750 AD) and its burial rituals. Next, the thesis describes the contents of grave 6 in detail and compares them with other graves selected on the presence of similar horse gear mounts from Oexle’s Studien zu merowingerzeitlichem Pferdegeschirr am Beispiel der Trensen and Van Es’ and Hulst’s publication on the cemetery of Lent (Netherlands). The following chapters present the date and interpretation for grave 6. They also discuss whether the grave can be seen as a founders’ grave and what the meaning of the grave is both in the context of the cemetery and in a supra-regional context. Grave 6 is one out of a small number of graves spread over Germany, Belgium and the Netherlands that contain horse gear with silver inlay decorations in the geometric style. The horse gear causes grave 6 to be dated to the (early) seventh century, although it includes a few objects that are much older. The grave is part of the second phase of the cemetery, making it different from a traditional founders’ grave. Because it meets all other requirements it is still regarded a founders’ grave. One reason is that there may not be a continuity of burial on the site after the first phase of (two) burials in the middle or third quarter of the sixth century. The presence of a second round of founders’ graves in a cemetery could have different meanings. For example, maybe a new community settled here and reused an older cemetery.Show less
A significant step in the history of society was the onset of metallurgy. It is however unclear when metal first started to be used as a standard, functional material in prehistory. Much of the...Show moreA significant step in the history of society was the onset of metallurgy. It is however unclear when metal first started to be used as a standard, functional material in prehistory. Much of the earliest evidence of metal artefacts within the archaeological record was deposited in a potentially ritual context, which suggests that the origin of the use of the metal as a functional material cannot be based on the presence of metal objects within the archaeological record. The deposition of supposedly ritual objects in the past does provide evidence for the presence of metal as a material, however this does not necessarily correlate to the presence of everyday, working metal objects and tools. While stone tools could have been immediately discarded once they are broken and so their stratigraphic placement in the archaeological record can be approximately correlated with the date that they were used in the past, metal tools can be re- melted and so recycled over a much longer period of time. It could therefore be argued that he earliest stratigraphic location of metal tools in the soil does not necessarily correlate with their time of origin in prehistory. In order to address this problem, many studies have instead studied the presence of metal indirectly, by investigating the microwear traces left by different tool materials in order to determine whether certain traces can be considered characteristic of metal tool use. These studies have ranged from an examination of cut marks in butchered bones to an investigation of drilling technology during bead production. The present study used experimental archaeology complemented by microwear analysis to investigate traces left by stone, antler, and metal tools during the production of amber beads, focusing particularly on the cutting and drilling stages of bead production. From an analysis of the experimentally produced pieces, it was then possible to create a list of distinguishing features for each tool material. This list of distinguishing features was then compared to those traces identified on archaeological collections from three sites in the northern Netherlands: the Late Neolithic settlement site at Kolhorn, a coffin burial in a tumulus at Emmerdennen, and grave goods from several tumuli at Hijken Hooghalen. The results demonstrated that it is possible to identify which tool material had been used to create the archaeological pieces, and thus potentially contribute towards existing studies in microwear analysis of tool traces, and potentially also further towards detecting the onset of metal as a functional material in prehistory.Show less
Museum architecture has been a complex but fruitful area in the museum studies. The contribution of the architectural qualities in the museological experience has been less researched even though...Show moreMuseum architecture has been a complex but fruitful area in the museum studies. The contribution of the architectural qualities in the museological experience has been less researched even though museums of extraordinary design have been an emblem in the cities, responsible of the social and economic change. This thesis aims to explore the physical aspects of the museum building and its qualities not as a static form but as an actor in visitor experience that is implicated in various relationships. In addition to this, the next step of the research will be the multisensory experience that architecture provides in a museum visit. The Museum of European and Mediterranean civilization in Marseilles will be used as the case study in order to acquire an in depth understanding of the design thinking, as a forceful piece of architecture which generates emotional, sensory and critical impact.Show less
The Late Mesolithic period is rich in human burials with unmodified and modified animal remains and animal burials. In contrast, the Early and Middle Neolithic period is less studied. The focus of...Show moreThe Late Mesolithic period is rich in human burials with unmodified and modified animal remains and animal burials. In contrast, the Early and Middle Neolithic period is less studied. The focus of this research is on the different relationships humans have with animals at the Late Mesolithic period throughout the Early and Middle Neolithic in South Scandinavia and the Netherlands. The relevance of this study is to understand the human-animal relationship before and after the introduction of the domestic animal: pigs, cattle and sheep. The research approach was to focus on animal and human mortuary practices using ideas from the personhood approach with a deposition typology. The deposition typology helps to divide all the animal remains in groups with similar characteristics. This method allows the exploration of different attitudes humans had towards animals. The results of this research indicate that animals played an important role in the mortuary practices as animals are present in all contexts. However, these practices change from Late Mesolithic to the Early and Middle Neolithic period as there was a decrease of animal remains in mortuary practices in South Scandinavia and an increase in the Netherlands. This dissertation illustrates the lack of studies there is about animal deposition and the need for further research on this topic.Show less
The study presented in this thesis investigates what structures can be interpreted as type of stone markers and how and why these have been used in the Jebel Qurma region, a desert landscape that...Show moreThe study presented in this thesis investigates what structures can be interpreted as type of stone markers and how and why these have been used in the Jebel Qurma region, a desert landscape that is part of the eastern badia (or Black Desert) northeast Jordan. The use of these structures is difficult to understand since these differ in physical qualities even when they have been positioned at the same places in the landscape. Some are well-built to be seen from far and all directions but many loosely piled and only visible from close distances. During two historical occupation phases stone markers are positioned in the Jebel Qurma region by societies with a pastoralist’s lifestyle. They explored and occupied the landscape intensively during a specific period of the year in order to hunt, pasture their livestock and to perform other dwelling activities in the landscape. . The complexities of the societies and the climate conditions in the research area contributed to a different way of the use of stone markers in the landscape. A typology/classifation could be established based on the needs of the societies. The physical qualities of the stone markers are related to their topographical positioning in the landscape. The stone markers used by the Safaitic society and traditional Bedouins are the evidence of a well-organized travel system to perform subsistence strategies in the interior of the landscape with livestock. Their interaction with stone markers contributes to the understanding how they used the landscape while they were moving with livestock through the region to get from one place to another.Show less
This thesis deals with two types of coins minted in Dorestad during the reign of Lothar I (840-855), and with their production and its organisation. The hoards of Tzummarum II, Roermond and...Show moreThis thesis deals with two types of coins minted in Dorestad during the reign of Lothar I (840-855), and with their production and its organisation. The hoards of Tzummarum II, Roermond and Westerklief II, made it possible to do an intensive die-study on both coin types (Type 1 and Type 2). A comparison between the created die-chains of Type 1 showed a change in the metrological aspects and designs of these coins. The hhXRF analysis of the coins of Type 1 showed a degradation of the silver content from around 90 to 60% over time. This is in contrast to the coins of Type 2, of which the silver content remained 90%. The emperor’s name and title were always written incorrectly, unlike the mint name Dorestad. This fact implies deliberate wrongly spelling of the name and title of emperor and may be interpreted as making a statement against Lothar I from the Viking(s) that kept Dorestad as a beneficium. The metrological characteristics and designs of the die-chains of Type 1 strongly suggest that these coins were all struck in the same workshop. A cautious estimation of the coins of Type 1 is 4.2 million and 190,000 coins of Type 2. The extended chaîne opératoire was developed to theorize the steps within the production of coins in an attempt to better understand this process. It shows that the production of a coin consists of three different phases, which can change independently from one another. The four parameters by Costin on the late medieval coin production were applied in order to help to understand how coin production could have been organised in Dorestad.Show less
The Kura Araxes represents an important albeit understudied cultural horizon dated to the Early Bronze Age, often defined as a single cultural group that originated in Transcaucasia and spread into...Show moreThe Kura Araxes represents an important albeit understudied cultural horizon dated to the Early Bronze Age, often defined as a single cultural group that originated in Transcaucasia and spread into the greater Near East. Many details about Kura Araxes society still remain much debated as most of the theories discussing the identity of the culture are based on the distribution of characteristic ceramics, which can mask the various levels of complexity. This study focuses on the mortuary evidence found in designated Kura Araxes cemeteries, which has the potential to highlight more cultural heterogeneity. Patterns within burial practices including burial construction types, location of cemeteries, inhumation practices, gender, rituals, grave goods, geographic dispersals and chronological transitions are examined. The divisions in mortuary traditions are interpreted as corresponding to separations in economic and ethnic identities based on mobile and sedentary lifestyle interactions, which undergo transformations throughout the Kura Araxes chronological phases.Show less
In this thesis, the focus lies on the practice of human sacrifice and cannibalism in Aztec culture, and how they are represented in the Historia General de las Cosas de Nueva España and the...Show moreIn this thesis, the focus lies on the practice of human sacrifice and cannibalism in Aztec culture, and how they are represented in the Historia General de las Cosas de Nueva España and the Primeros Memoriales. Both documents have been written by Fray Bernardino de Sahagún, in sixteenth-century New Spain. The Historia General is one of the most cited works in the practice of archaeology and anthropology, regarding human sacrifice and cannibalism in the Aztec world. In general, the Historia General is cited in academic literature without any form of critical comment. By analyzing the first and second book of the Historia General and the Primeros Memoriales, and looking at the motivations behind these two colonial documents, it becomes clear that the Historia General is by no means an objective source of information, and uses human sacrifice and cannibalism as a colonial tool, in order to promote colonialism, the conquest of New Spain, the spread of evangelization and the eradication of the Aztec religion. Therefore, archaeologists and anthropologists should be cautious and critical when using the Historia General in their research on human sacrifice and cannibalism, and base their research on empirical data, for the most part. In doing so, the critical assessment of colonial works such as the Historia General, will lead to a decolonization of the practice of archaeology and anthropology.Show less
When the body endures physiological stress during childhood it will react by disrupting the growth of skeletal elements. By doing so, the body will be able to utilize nutrients for survival rather...Show moreWhen the body endures physiological stress during childhood it will react by disrupting the growth of skeletal elements. By doing so, the body will be able to utilize nutrients for survival rather than putting energy towards growth. When a physiological disruption leaves a permanent mark on the skeleton or dentition it is called a non-specific indicator of stress. A small vertebral neural canal is one such non-specific indicator of stress. The vertebral neural canal is the hole in each vertebra through which the spinal cord passes. A small vertebral neural canal is an indicator of physiological stress during childhood. This thesis examines the relationship between physiological stress and urbanization by studying the vertebral neural canal size. Adults from St Mary Graces, a medieval skeletal collection with a mixed socioeconomic status, and St Bride’s Lower, a post-medieval collection with a low to middle class socioeconomic status, were analyzed for this study. Both archaeological sites are located in London, England, which was already an urban settlement during medieval times, but became even more urbanized during the post-medieval period. Measurements of the inner and outer diameter of the vertebral neural canal were taken. Statistical analysis was used to determine whether there were any differences in vertebral neural canal size between the two archaeological sites. The data was also used to establish whether there were any differences in vertebral neural canal size between sexes and age groups. Results show that the physiological stress did not increase with increased urbanization in the St Bride’s Lower sample and that males benefited more from the further urbanization of London than the females. The study also showed that only the inner diameter, and not the outer diameter, provided information on physiological stress. Overall, this study has further defined the possibilities and limitations of using the vertebral neural canal diameter as an indicator of stress and increased our understanding of the impact of urbanization on physiological stress.Show less
In this thesis I have applied 2 theoretical frameworks to the Vlaardingen Culture: the material engagement theory and the notion of a Neolithic mind-set. The Vlaardingen Culture is an...Show moreIn this thesis I have applied 2 theoretical frameworks to the Vlaardingen Culture: the material engagement theory and the notion of a Neolithic mind-set. The Vlaardingen Culture is an archaeological culture that takes part in the Neolithisation process of the Netherlands, which can be summarized as the transformation into the Neolithic period. I have chosen to combine the two mentioned theoretical frameworks in order to analyse the different world-views of the Mesolithic and the Neolithic. The Vlaardingen period (3400-2500 BCE) is considered to be an intermediate phase in the Neolithisation period, where people are neither fully Mesolithic or Neolithic. This group is characterized by the fact that their food economy and their degree sedentism share traits of a Mesolithic and a Neolithic way of life.Show less
This thesis studies theatrical elements in museums, particularly exploring the way performances and performative techniques are incorporated in three museum types: anthropological, archaeological...Show moreThis thesis studies theatrical elements in museums, particularly exploring the way performances and performative techniques are incorporated in three museum types: anthropological, archaeological and contemporary art. It aims to disclose the role and function of performative means within them and examine whether and in what ways performative means could foster museum’s social relevance. Could they for instance, assist each of these museum types in meeting the particular demands that arise regarding its current social mission? Subsequently, the differences and similarities between the performances and the perfomative methods used in anthropological, archaeological and contemporary art museums are pointed out and the inter-influences among them are explored. Several publications are reviewed in order to delineate museum’s social role over the years emphasizing its educational mission. Also, a theoretical framework concerning performance’s relationship with society is given and the integration of museum and theatre is outlined focusing on the emergence of museum theatre. An exploration of the official websites, the brochures and public programmes of various museums worldwide provides information about the performative means used and the purposes they tend to serve. In the case of the performative spaces in anthropology museums the emphasis is put on Nuno Porto’s concept of ‘ethnographic installation’. The particular demands regarding the role and mission of each of the three museum types in present-day society are explored in reference to the relevant literature. Moreover, three cases-studies are examined in the context of this thesis: the Mix- Max Brazil exhibition in Tropenmuseum Junior in Amsterdam -where I did my internship-, the staging of the theatrical play ‘Hyllos’ in National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden (RMO) by the group ‘Veenfabriek, and Aernout Mik’s retrospective, ‘Communitas, in Stedelijk in Amsterdam, where I participated as a performer. The special case of Tropenmuseum Junior is explored as an anthropological museum integrating museum and theatre in its programmes and space. Its philosophy and guiding principles are outlined and the way such a concept is organized and set up is explored revealing performative means’ potentials within museums. Additionally, the educational efficacy of its method is examined. In ‘Hyllos’ case particular emphasis is put on the creative way the performance brings antiquity closer to the present using the story of an ancient mythical figure to provocatively comment on the state of democracy today. In ‘Communitas’ the dynamic socio-political aspect of the work is stressed as well as the innovative way Mik has physically and intellectually engaged his viewers. For the purposes of this study the author has pursued the qualitative research of the semi-structured interviews. Several museum and theatre professionals of various ranks and tasks have been interviewed. The outcome of the study indicates that performative means in both anthropological and archaeological museums have, apart from an entertaining, a strong educational-interpretive function. Although contemporary art museums are also interested in their educational mission, they nevertheless present a big number of performative works –such as performance art pieces- which constitute exhibits by themselves. Performative means indeed seem to foster museums’ social relevance having the capability to help them fulfil their role and mission in contemporary world. Moreover, due to the antiquity of their exhibits archaeological museums seem to confront special difficulties in tracing a connection with the present-day visitor. Therefore, performative means can be particularly useful in the context of archaeology museums as a powerful tool able to enliven their long ago lost worlds.Show less
LVMEN IN TENEBRAE (Light in the darkness) presents a comparative study of images on ceramic oil lamps from three military camps, Nijmegen Kops Plateau, Velsen 1 and Haltern (Germany), located in...Show moreLVMEN IN TENEBRAE (Light in the darkness) presents a comparative study of images on ceramic oil lamps from three military camps, Nijmegen Kops Plateau, Velsen 1 and Haltern (Germany), located in the Lower Rhine Area, on the frontier of the Roman Empire. This thesis starts with descriptions of the manufacture, distribution and main uses of picture lamps for the specific period of 20 BC until AD 70, when Nijmegen Kops Plateau functioned as a Roman military settlement. The discussion proceeds with the main topic, picture lamp motifs, and introduces the classification system of Hella Eckardt, the base method used for the cross-site comparison of motifs in this thesis. The central question of this research is what motifs on picture lamps can tell us about aspects of Roman military life in the northern Rhine region. From their analysis it has been found that soldiers in those days believed in a supernatural world, evidenced by the depiction of several deities and cupids. Also myths and legends illustrated the picture lamps’ discs. Furthermore, aspects of daily life were visible, as were animals and plants. A special subject was the gladiator, as well as the chariot race, showing strength and cunning, important characteristics for a soldier. Last but not least, also many erotic scenes were spotted on the lamps from some Roman sites. In spite of the presence of a central Roman authority, no uniform standard image file can be discerned. A visible heterogeneity exists, determined by consumer’s choice or by the selection of pottery or traders, a simple matter of supply and demand. The picture lamps from Nijmegen Kops Plateau, Velsen 1 and Haltern are by no means the same. Each site has its own collection of motifs without a specific motif dominating. Only Velsen 1 can be seen as an exception for its great number of erotic scenes. Finally, some equivalents are highlighted of Roman picture lamp motifs in other artistic media across the Empire. It has been demonstrated that comparing the three sites at the northern border of the Lower Rhine area with other sites in the Roman Empire does not provide any distinctive patterns. No site is characterized by specific conspicuities. Also, no site has the same range of subjects. With some caution it can be noted that a number of fragments from the sites of Nijmegen Kops Plateau, Velsen 1 and Haltern yielded striking images, worn in a certain way and showing a nearly complete picture. Perhaps these shards can be considered as amulets, a function they received when the owner of the formerly complete lamp found the image too valuable to discard. From a number of fragments found at the Port of Velsen 1 it can be determined that the image formed part of the same erotic scene. Perhaps this may signify a ritual deposition, wherein the offeror begs for fertility.Show less
Százhalombatta-Földvár, located in Central Hungary, is a Bronze Age tell-settlement along the Danube River, at the delta of the Benta river. The Bronze Age in Hungary is the period between 2800...Show moreSzázhalombatta-Földvár, located in Central Hungary, is a Bronze Age tell-settlement along the Danube River, at the delta of the Benta river. The Bronze Age in Hungary is the period between 2800-2700 BC and 800 BC (Kiss 2005), from which Százhalombatta represents 2000-1400 BC (Vicze 2013). This archaeological site has an important role in the Bronze Age research in Hungary – and abroad. Due to its size and geographical position, Százhalombatta-Földvár can be considered the head of the Bronze Age chiefdom in the Benta valley, according to the model proposed by Earle and Kristiansen (2010). However, detailed research of the site itself is challenging this view. Comparisons of the material culture with other site-types show little indications of a difference in social hierarchy within each site. Hence, instead of political differences, they might be economical. The present study aims to give additional information for the interpretation of the site through microwear analysis of sickle inserts. Microwear analysis is not yet an established approach in Hungary, making the present research a pioneer and offering a fully new approach to understanding the site. In the research presented here, a sample of sickle blades has been analysed, coming from the last occupation layer of the tell, the Koszider Phase (1500-1400 BC) (Vicze 2013). Sickle blades are the most common flint tools found on the site, which underlines their importance in the daily life and society. In order to properly introduce this new method into the current research, it was essential to conduct experiments as references, because the archaeological microwear traces have to be compared with traces on experimental tools. As such, harvesting with experimental flint flakes was carried out. The experiments focused on the difference between 148 Abstract harvesting methods and cereal types. Furthermore, the archaeological tools were also compared to literature and the experimental reference collection of the faculty of archaeology. The microwear analysis strengthens the interpretation that the sickle blades had been used to harvest cereals and that they were used for a long time and regularly maintained. Unfortunately, the experiments did not yield the hoped-for differentiating information, while the archaeological tools do show a greater variability. As a result, it is not possible to draw conclusions about the harvesting method or harvested cereal species at this stage of the research. Nevertheless, it was possible to give some interpretation about social organisation. From the microwear analysis it can be suggested that sickles were important tools and that the harvest might have been organised and centralised by Százhalombatta-Földvár in the chiefdom of the Benta valley.Show less
A values-based approach is able to indicate heritage values attributed to the cultural resource of heritage by stakeholder groups. This study examines three stakeholders of heritage who share the...Show moreA values-based approach is able to indicate heritage values attributed to the cultural resource of heritage by stakeholder groups. This study examines three stakeholders of heritage who share the characteristic of being distributors of news. State, local community and general public are examined for the meanings they attach to heritage via the news messages they publish. The case study of the research provides an interesting case when all the aforementioned stakeholder groups contributed to the spread of knowledge and information upon the excavation of the Kastas tumulus at Amphipolis in Greece. The examination of the content based on the variables of time and the values resulted in the identification of patterns. Time served as an alteration factor for the attribution of meaning at the site by the involved stakeholders. In addition, differences exist in the way the stakeholders attribute values and in the frequency of the values per stakeholder.Show less
The way that we view data as archaeologists is under constant review, especially in the field of human evolution and our processes of adaptation. An example of this is the concern to not take...Show moreThe way that we view data as archaeologists is under constant review, especially in the field of human evolution and our processes of adaptation. An example of this is the concern to not take absence of evidence as evidence of absence. Further to this we are aware in each archaeological situation there is a chance that we may only ever discover a handful of pieces to the puzzle. It is in this current setting that we are becoming increasingly careful of our interpretations of negative evidence and of how preservation levels affect a record and how it is researched. The merits of investigating sites and landscapes that are yet to produce hominin fossils are being acknowledged. In the spirit of taking advantage of this current state of affairs, it is interesting to ask the question what can ‘non-archaeological’ sites or archaeologically “sterile” landscapes (as in those that are yet to produce signals of hominin presence), or more in general, negative evidence - tell us, if anything, about hominin biogeographic range edges? To investigate this, I ask the question could the north-western edge of the Neandertal biogeographic range as we now think we know it, ever have been extended westwards, into Ireland? There is evidence of a Neandertal presence in Wales, at 230kya, while the first recorded human presence in Ireland is at 12,5kya only. The likelihood of a former Neandertal presence in Ireland is investigated here. The question is approached three fold and focuses on 1) the available pathways to Ireland, 2) the possibilities for a hominin presence in terms of the associated environments and 3) the preservation of Pleistocene deposits which might have encased traces of Pleistocene hominin activities. Britain’s human occupation history is discussed in terms of the location of a source population and possible routes to Ireland via the Irish Sea. Environmental reconstructions relay a climate and environment that is clement at times and one that was capable of supporting a range of mid- to large-sized mammals. Following glacial events some species of flora and fauna were able to recolonize the area. Repeated successful colonization by a variety of mammals has led to suggestions that hominins could have colonized the island too. Severe and repeated glacial action however has removed the majority of Pleistocene deposits from Ireland, leaving the record damaged and extremely limited, and such suggestions difficult to test. At first glance the interpretation of the absence of Neandertal traces in Ireland is not a clear cut issue. There is an available source population, a range of species have colonized and recolonized the area and there is an environment that at times is far from harsh. Leaving Neandertal preference or lack of necessity to one side, the evidence as it stands does not give a definitive reason that their range could not have, even briefly, extended westwards into Ireland. The lack of a Neandertal signal could be put down to an issue of tolerances and preferences or to the lack of preserved sediments and research. This study concludes however that the physical barrier of the Irish Sea appears to be the cause of the absence of a Neandertal presence in Ireland, further palaeogeographic reconstructions of the Irish Sea as well as fieldwork need to be undertaken to test this interpretation in the future. This thesis highlights the difficulties of investigating areas with extremely limited evidence and damaged archaeological records but also gives reasons why we should do it anyway.Show less
