This thesis deals with two types of coins minted in Dorestad during the reign of Lothar I (840-855), and with their production and its organisation. The hoards of Tzummarum II, Roermond and...Show moreThis thesis deals with two types of coins minted in Dorestad during the reign of Lothar I (840-855), and with their production and its organisation. The hoards of Tzummarum II, Roermond and Westerklief II, made it possible to do an intensive die-study on both coin types (Type 1 and Type 2). A comparison between the created die-chains of Type 1 showed a change in the metrological aspects and designs of these coins. The hhXRF analysis of the coins of Type 1 showed a degradation of the silver content from around 90 to 60% over time. This is in contrast to the coins of Type 2, of which the silver content remained 90%. The emperor’s name and title were always written incorrectly, unlike the mint name Dorestad. This fact implies deliberate wrongly spelling of the name and title of emperor and may be interpreted as making a statement against Lothar I from the Viking(s) that kept Dorestad as a beneficium. The metrological characteristics and designs of the die-chains of Type 1 strongly suggest that these coins were all struck in the same workshop. A cautious estimation of the coins of Type 1 is 4.2 million and 190,000 coins of Type 2. The extended chaîne opératoire was developed to theorize the steps within the production of coins in an attempt to better understand this process. It shows that the production of a coin consists of three different phases, which can change independently from one another. The four parameters by Costin on the late medieval coin production were applied in order to help to understand how coin production could have been organised in Dorestad.Show less
The Kura Araxes represents an important albeit understudied cultural horizon dated to the Early Bronze Age, often defined as a single cultural group that originated in Transcaucasia and spread into...Show moreThe Kura Araxes represents an important albeit understudied cultural horizon dated to the Early Bronze Age, often defined as a single cultural group that originated in Transcaucasia and spread into the greater Near East. Many details about Kura Araxes society still remain much debated as most of the theories discussing the identity of the culture are based on the distribution of characteristic ceramics, which can mask the various levels of complexity. This study focuses on the mortuary evidence found in designated Kura Araxes cemeteries, which has the potential to highlight more cultural heterogeneity. Patterns within burial practices including burial construction types, location of cemeteries, inhumation practices, gender, rituals, grave goods, geographic dispersals and chronological transitions are examined. The divisions in mortuary traditions are interpreted as corresponding to separations in economic and ethnic identities based on mobile and sedentary lifestyle interactions, which undergo transformations throughout the Kura Araxes chronological phases.Show less
The research conducted in this thesis aims to analyse the possible relationship between the Cocijo effigy vessels recovered from tomb contexts at Monte Alban and the four primary directions. The...Show moreThe research conducted in this thesis aims to analyse the possible relationship between the Cocijo effigy vessels recovered from tomb contexts at Monte Alban and the four primary directions. The Cocijo effigy vessels were crafted by the Zapotec people that inhabited the central valley of Oaxaca, Mexico and who founded Monte Alban around 500 BC. Cocijo was their deity of rain, storms, lightning and fertility and his imagery is extensively present at Monte Alban. The Zapotec people most likely had a worldview akin to a tiered cosmology. In this particular cosmological model, the four cardinal directions are of great importance. Yet, surprisingly little data concerning the four primary directions appears to be available when it comes to the Zapotec populations. Although the Cocijo effigy vessels have been extensively analysed and interpreted when it comes to their iconography, their actual function or the reason why they are located specifically in tomb contexts is still largely unknown. The research conducted in this thesis was aimed at finding new hypotheses through which the presence and function of these vessel may be explained. Through the combination of the iconographical data and physical data of the effigy vessels, the meaning which the Zapotec people probably ascribed to what they recognised as the primary directions and other proposed data on their cosmological models, a new hypothesis has been formed. It is proposed in this thesis, that the Cocijo effigy and its presence and function can be explained through its position relative to the cardinal directions. In the analyses, data concerning the tomb contexts at Monte Alban that yielded effigy vessels has been taken into account as well. The orientation of these tombs, as well as the position that the vessels had therein formed the backbone of the research conducted. Results show, that there is most likely a connection between the positioning of the Cocijo effigy vessels and the primary directions, yet it will warrant further research to arrive at more conclusive answers.Show less
This thesis explores the deposition of swords in European rivers and wetlands during the Carolingian period. Finds of a similar nature have been thoroughly studied in Scandinavia and a scholarly...Show moreThis thesis explores the deposition of swords in European rivers and wetlands during the Carolingian period. Finds of a similar nature have been thoroughly studied in Scandinavia and a scholarly discussion has been underway in Britain. Continental water-finds have been traditionally interpreted as casual losses and intentional deposition has been regarded as unlikely, given the Christian nature of the Frankish Empire. This thesis questions the traditional interpretation of continental water-finds and suggests an alternative explanation. Hundred twenty-nine swords are mapped geographically, spanning from the river Loire to the river Oder, to identify distribution patters that support the hypothesis of ritual deposition. The fact that the Carolingian swords accumulate in specific locations in the natural landscape, such as the confluences of major rivers or river mouths, seem to indicate a liminal character of these deposits. Rivers and wetlands formed borders and boundaries in a physical, as well as in a mental world of medieval people, and as such they were imbued with special meaning. It is suggested here that the swords deposited at these liminal locations might have been connected to journeys, or to actions related to traversing or engaging with the river. Furthermore, this thesis seeks to bridge a gap between the dichotomy of ‘pagan’ ritual practice and Christian ideology and suggests that these depositions were not performed in defiance of the Church, but were incorporated into the new belief system and appropriated to suite contemporaneous ideas.Show less
In the municipality of Oegstgeest (NL), an early medieval settlement was excavated spanning an area of circa eight hectares. The excavation revealed both the core habitation areas and the periphery...Show moreIn the municipality of Oegstgeest (NL), an early medieval settlement was excavated spanning an area of circa eight hectares. The excavation revealed both the core habitation areas and the periphery of the settlement. Among the thousands of features and finds related to the daily activities of the inhabitants, 27 contexts were excavated that contained human remains, of which nine contained (partially) complete individuals, and 18 secondary deposited remains. The human remains and their associated contexts are the focus of this research. The human remains were subjected to various analyzes, which provided different views on the lives and deaths of the inhabitants of early medieval Oegstgeest. Based on the analysis of the geographical location of the remains, it was argued that the choice for burial location was influenced by the presence of landmarks with a liminal character, such as boundary ditches. The analysis of the burial features, and the position of the corpse therein, revealed a variety of body positions and sepulchers. The osteological analysis of the bones indicated that a minimum of thirteen individuals was represented in the assemblage. The primary inhumations consisted of both male and female individuals with a varying age-at-death. The demographic composition of the deviant burials and secondary deposits was highly homogenous, consisting almost exclusively of adult male individuals. Few pathological conditions were identified, but a relatively large number of bones (from secondary deposits) exhibited perimortem sharp force trauma and scavenging marks. From five individuals strontium and/or stable oxygen isotopes were analyzed to determine the area in which they were born. The results indicated that four individuals were not born in the coastal region of the Netherlands. It was possible to state that the five individuals were born in four different areas. Based on the isotope results, it was argued that early medieval migration flows were more diverse than previously thought. The final part of the thesis discussed cultural explanations for the phenomena that were observed in the assemblage of human remains. For the secondary deposits it was proposed that they were the product of an excarnation ritual. Possibly the wolf, raven and eagle - important animals in early medieval mythology- fulfilled a role in the excarnation process. Alternatively, the secondary deposits and deviant primary deposits might be the product of ritual offerings to specific Celtic deities. Sun or wheel symbols found in the settlement (such as in a deposit of human bones and on a silver bowl), were possibly also linked to a Celtic religious cult. The cremated remains of one individual, found in the fill of disused well, were interpreted as a foundation- or closure deposit. For the primary inhumations, which were exclusively found near the boundaries of habitation areas, it was proposed that they possibly served as territorial markers. Depositing deceased relatives at the periphery of the household estate might have strengthened the ancestral affiliation, and thereby the claim on the territory.Show less
The mandible is one of the many structures of the human skeleton that can be characterized by large amounts of inter(between)-individual morphological variation. The primary aim of this thesis is...Show moreThe mandible is one of the many structures of the human skeleton that can be characterized by large amounts of inter(between)-individual morphological variation. The primary aim of this thesis is to provide the one of the first large-scale systematic investigations upon which the relationship between mandibular morphological variation and speech production capabilities and language change can be explored, a subject that has seen little previous research. In order to accurately capture the shape and size of the human mandible, three-dimensional geometric morphometrics are used on adults (18-49 years of age) from two Dutch archaeological sites: Alkmaar (AD 1484-1574, n= 37) and Middenbeemster (AD 1829-1866, n= 51). The results indicate that there is a large amount of overlap of shape variation between individuals and that the variation within the groups is quite large compared to the variation between groups. Overall, the mandibles belonging to individuals from Alkmaar are significantly larger while mandibles from Middenbeemster are smaller on average. The average male mandible from Alkmaar has a superiorly-posteriorly shifted anterior portion of the corpus. The male individuals from Middenbeemster show less antero-posterior curvature in the anterior part of the corpus and slightly more projecting chins. The females show no significant differences between the sites. Moreover, the sample from Middenbeemster shows sexual dimorphism which is dominated by differences in size. The differences are mainly located in the corpus and probably caused by dissimilarities in the mandibular symphysis in terms of robusticity. For the individuals from Alkmaar, there is no significant dimorphism in the shape captured by the landmarks presented here, except at the ramus, and specifically at the gonial angles. Therefore, the expression of sexual dimorphism shifts between these sites. These results are probably linked to the general softening of the diet that occurred between these time-periods due to processing improvements and different dietary components due to the Industrial Revolution, but more research on this subject is needed. This thesis contributes to our understanding of shape variation and sexual dimorphism in the mandible. It has shown that sexual dimorphism has changed over a small period of time in a geographical area in North Holland and represents the first time that three-dimensional geometric morphometrics have been applied to human skeletal remains in the Netherlands. It also provides one of the first steps upon which researchers can begin to investigate the potential role of mandibular morphology on variation in language and speech production. While unsuccessful in finding a direct correlation between language and mandibular morphology, this thesis demonstrates the complexity of this issue as it appears difficult to separate the effect of language from other, more prominent factors such as diet, mastication and tooth status. These factors need to be overcome before future research can tackle questions regarding language change and its relationship with mandibular morphology. Thus, this thesis will serve as one of the stepping stones that can be used to perform cutting-edge research on this complex but interesting subject.Show less
In this thesis I examine the ethnographic record of recent arid-zone Australian hunter-gatherers to consider how prehistoric populations may have responded to climate change in similar climatic and...Show moreIn this thesis I examine the ethnographic record of recent arid-zone Australian hunter-gatherers to consider how prehistoric populations may have responded to climate change in similar climatic and ecological settings. The archaeological record of population presence and absence indicates that pulses of territorial abandonment and reoccupation correspond with periods of significant climatic variability, with the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) and the on-set of modern El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycles during the mid-Holocene being identified as significant periods of increased environmental stress and associated habitat abandonment. However modelling such population processes at a fine-grained level is constrained by the differential preservation of archaeological material, dating limitations, issues with chronological control at some sites, and differences in research intensity. As a result the archaeological record is unclear as to whether such population processes involved habitat tracking to more favourable areas, or alternatively resulted in extinction of local groups in areas that became unviable for continued occupation. My thesis addresses this lack of clarity by relating recent hunter-gatherer drought responses to prehistoric population process evident from the archaeological record. I start with an examination of the Arandic and Western Desert societies to provide a background for establishing how desert hunter-gather groups responded to serious drought in the recent past. I look at the cultural and economic strategies developed by these tribal groups in response to distinct but connected environments, and discuss how differences in social organisation between groups occupying distinct ecological regions shaped drought responses. I investigate the socio-cultural and behavioural mechanisms of desert hunter-gatherers that facilitated habitat tracking and develop a framework based on behavioural ecology models to consider how subsistence and mobility strategies enabled range shifts to neighbouring areas during periods of resource depletion. Where drought forced local group extinction is evident, I identify the constraining factors acting on populations that limited their capacity to respond to changing environmental conditions. I argue that water availability is the major constraint to occupation of arid environments, with access to reliable water sources and foraging areas available from water points being a precondition of occupation for both recent and prehistoric arid-zone hunter-gatherers and the main factor limiting population distribution. I propose that extensive social and economic networks linking groups, who were dependent on one another for access to water and resources, were crucial for successful occupation of the Australian desert during the historical period and relied on critical population size, particularly during periods of climatic instability. While the precise social organisation and subsistence strategies employed by prehistoric hunter-gatherer groups is invisible in the archaeological record, I hypothesise that such social and economic networks were likely equally crucial to the survival of prehistoric hunter-gatherers. In the event that critical population size dropped below the threshold for maintaining such networks, continued occupation of marginal environments was unviable.Show less
This thesis aims to give a clear understanding of the difficulties in brick research and to suggest new options on behalf of local production. To do this, the second part of this thesis will...Show moreThis thesis aims to give a clear understanding of the difficulties in brick research and to suggest new options on behalf of local production. To do this, the second part of this thesis will compare clay samples with early brick structures in their vicinity (using X-Ray Fluorescence). This will –hopefully- give an indication of the locality of brick production in the earliest period (end of the twelfth into the thirteenth century and first half of the fourteenth century). The thesis forms the connection between archaeological and building history debates.Show less
This study concerns the Christian cemetery surrounding the Romanesque and earliest Gothic churches in the village of Reusel. This cemetery dating to the 10th to 14th centuries was almost completely...Show moreThis study concerns the Christian cemetery surrounding the Romanesque and earliest Gothic churches in the village of Reusel. This cemetery dating to the 10th to 14th centuries was almost completely excavated. The aim of this study is twofold: to determine the composition of the sample of excavated graves, and to assess patterns in the ways the individuals were buried. In particular, it was examined if differentiation in grave morphologies and distribution could be related to social differences. In order to do this, different grave morphologies, the orientation of the graves and their location, and the skeletons from the graves were examined. Furthermore, characteristics were compared to each other to see if patterns emerged. The composition of the sample suggests that most adult community members were buried at the Reusel cemetery. Most children however, and especially the infants, may not have been buried within the cemetery grounds. The ones that were, were all buried in the eastern part of the cemetery, except for one infant that was buried together with an adult. Males were slightly overrepresented in the sample, but this is likely to be due to sample size. Remarkably, intramural burial was rare. Burial took place on all sides of the successive churches, but particularly directly to the east of it. Different grave morphologies appeared all over the cemetery, apart from the ladder coffin, which was restricted to the eastern part of the churchyard. This type of coffin may be related to a specific status of the deceased be it in terms of wealth or piety. Furthermore, as far as could be determined, only males were buried in such coffins. Other observed grave morphologies include anthropomorphic graves, log coffins, coffins with and without protrusions and containers of unknown type. Coffins with and without nails were encountered, a difference that could be attributed to different periods. Most graves were oriented roughly from east to west, except three graves that were oriented west to east. Within the Christian tradition, such burials are often interpreted as priests, but the fact that at least one of these individuals was a woman, suggests traditions in Reusel may have been deviant. This study sheds more light on burial practices during the Central and Late Middle Ages. It shows that in the Reusel community, some practices were in accordance with those in other medieval communities, although others were clearly different. It confirms the existence of local variation in burial practices in this period. Apparently, people from local communities could, to a certain extent, give their own interpretation to Christian rituals. In future cemetery studies, such local variations have to be taken into account. Future research in these areas will help to acquire a better picture of medieval burial ritual and its social meaning in the southern Netherlands. This study is under embargo because the author prepares a more comprehensive report on this exceptional site.Show less
