This thesis sought to answer the question: to what extent are documentary viewers consuming an androcentric image of the Palaeolithic? In order to reach a conclusion, it first examined several...Show moreThis thesis sought to answer the question: to what extent are documentary viewers consuming an androcentric image of the Palaeolithic? In order to reach a conclusion, it first examined several prominent models of human evolution and early subsistence, noting the roles of males and females in each, and any bias or stereotyping that arose. Secondly, ethnographic evidence was cautiously evaluated to determine the extent to which anthropological models of early hunter-gatherers accurately reflect modern hunter-gatherer lifestyles. In addition, representations and depictions of Palaeolithic life, and in particular Palaeolithic women and their work, from various popular media sources were examined. Evolutionary theory, ethnographic and archaeological evidence, and common themes in the representation of Palaeolithic women were examined together to devise a definition of ‘androcentrism’ in this context. This definition was then compared to the treatment of women in five documentaries depicting Palaeolithic life, chosen for their perceived scientific authority and influence over the public’s understanding of the Palaeolithic. The results of the analysis of these documentaries showed they firmly adhered to the definition of androcentrism previously devised. Across all documentaries, women were vastly underrepresented compared to men. Where women were represented, they were shown engaging in a much more limited range of activities than men, and these activities perpetuated a modern, Western notion of women’s ‘place’. Women were tied to activities associated with nature such as gathering and childcare, and were excluded from activities related to culture including stone tool use, ritual and art. Activities that were most commonly carried out by females, such as gathering, were also significantly underrepresented in comparison to perceived male activities such as large game hunting. Having established the significant overrepresentation of males and a privileging of their activities across all documentaries examined, this thesis concluded by offering advice for future documentaries to avoid presenting such an overtly androcentric view of the Palaeolithic.Show less
The Cultural Routes programme of the Council of Europe aims at increasing cultural exchange, enhancing a European identity, stimulating tourism and supporting sustainable development by promoting...Show moreThe Cultural Routes programme of the Council of Europe aims at increasing cultural exchange, enhancing a European identity, stimulating tourism and supporting sustainable development by promoting cultural heritage under one theme, thus creating transnational cultural itineraries like the Phoenicians’ Route. This requires a complex structure based on cooperation and complementation, involving multiple stakeholders and making its implementation potentially uncertain due to its intricate machinery. These are the original ideas behind the research question around which the investigation is centered: to what extent have the goals of the Phoenicians’ Route, added in 2003 to the Cultural Routes programme of the Council of Europe, been achieved in Spain? By means of a literature review and a series of interviews conducted to key participants, I have concluded that the Phoenicians’ Route in Spain is at an initial stage of implementation. This is indicated firstly by the general unawareness I have perceived, both when preparing for the interviews and through the responses, and secondly by the direct answers of the interviewees. I suggest the problem is the confederation model on which the Phoenicians’ Route is based because it prompts uncomittement, disorganisation and an unequal implementation. This could be solved by incorporating a central figure with influential competence power that could animate the operators.Show less
The relation between archaeology and education contains a paradox. Where archaeologists have advocated the importance of education for archaeology, this advocation has not been adapted by policy...Show moreThe relation between archaeology and education contains a paradox. Where archaeologists have advocated the importance of education for archaeology, this advocation has not been adapted by policy stakeholders, in order to develop archaeology education programs. Three studies in Canada, the United States and United Kingdom have entailed that the relation between archaeology and education has poorly been investigated. This research builds upon the results on the other three studies to start the investigation on the state of affairs on the inclusion of archaeology into primary education in the Netherlands by investigating policy stakeholders perspectives. These values are investigated by interviews among representa- tives of the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science, provincial heritage institutes and museums, and placed into broader perspective by analyzing the results of monitor surveys on three history and culture education programs, and two legislative restrictions. Then, the combination of interviews and document analysis results in a synthesis where an alternative approach for archaeology education is presented for archaeologists, policy stakeholders and Primary school teachers in the Netherlands . The study ends with the request for further research that is built upon the results presented here.Show less
A values-based approach is able to indicate heritage values attributed to the cultural resource of heritage by stakeholder groups. This study examines three stakeholders of heritage who share the...Show moreA values-based approach is able to indicate heritage values attributed to the cultural resource of heritage by stakeholder groups. This study examines three stakeholders of heritage who share the characteristic of being distributors of news. State, local community and general public are examined for the meanings they attach to heritage via the news messages they publish. The case study of the research provides an interesting case when all the aforementioned stakeholder groups contributed to the spread of knowledge and information upon the excavation of the Kastas tumulus at Amphipolis in Greece. The examination of the content based on the variables of time and the values resulted in the identification of patterns. Time served as an alteration factor for the attribution of meaning at the site by the involved stakeholders. In addition, differences exist in the way the stakeholders attribute values and in the frequency of the values per stakeholder.Show less
Throughout the years, the discipline of archaeology has turned its interest towards the public and how the community can engage with the field of archaeology. At first, the crux of the idea was...Show moreThroughout the years, the discipline of archaeology has turned its interest towards the public and how the community can engage with the field of archaeology. At first, the crux of the idea was simply to inform the public about archaeological practices. Nowadays, it involves collaboration, sharing, and dialogue between archaeologists and communities. Uncovering the personal opinions of people is the first step in enabling the public to become active partners in a project. In this thesis, I focus on the relationships between local communities, decision makers and antiquities occasioned by an archaeological project in Greece. The aim is to examine the opinions and expectations of citizens in a town in which there is ongoing development of an archaeological park, namely, the town of Orchomenos in Boeotia. Apart from the opinion of local community, this research also focuses on the views of decision makers and their efforts to involve citizens in the project. People living in this area have learnt to live with the archaeological sites. The past is their present. The antiquities are embedded into the urban fabric and they are part of every citizen’s daily life. I aspire to make the voices of the people heard, and reveal and identify their opinions about the archaeological project. I examine the development of the archaeological park in Orchomenos with regard to three main elements that are inextricably linked to each other: the place (Orchomenos, its history, and the ongoing project), the decision makers and the local community. This research attempts to analyze all three of these aspects separately as well as collectively.Show less
This research focuses on improving the accessibility of archaeology in the Netherlands. The motives for this research are both to create more awareness and support for archaeology and to meet the...Show moreThis research focuses on improving the accessibility of archaeology in the Netherlands. The motives for this research are both to create more awareness and support for archaeology and to meet the needs of people that are interested in archaeology. This topic is addressed by analysing blogs and social networking sites. Additionally, it is examined whether these digital communication methods can help reach non-traditional audiences, particularly to engage the more difficult to reach target group of young adults. To be able to answer the research questions, questionnaires were set up for three target groups: bloggers, blog readers and young adults. A total number of 1.174 respondents have provided for many new insights regarding the use of blogs and social networking sites in archaeology, which messages need to be communicated and in which ways they can be communicated. Among other things, it has appeared that there are still some significant differences in the preferences of blog readers and the content that bloggers mainly blog about: most blog readers prefer to read about specific archaeological regions, excavations and sites, while most bloggers blog about personal opinions on archaeological matters. Blogs and social networking sites can contribute to making archaeology more accessible for a wider public and reaching out to young adults by incorporating and listening to the preferences, ideas, needs and wishes of the audiences they reach and of young adults themselves. Specifically regarding young adults, there are several approaches that can be applied in order to reach them. This requires depending less on the technology of blogs and social media and requires more of a focus on the content and message.Show less
Archaeology on television has been a widely debated subject amongst academic archaeologists. Perhaps the dilemma that archaeologists face is that archaeology – its practice, its interpretations and...Show moreArchaeology on television has been a widely debated subject amongst academic archaeologists. Perhaps the dilemma that archaeologists face is that archaeology – its practice, its interpretations and the archaeological record it studies – is much like television, in that they both require high degrees of involvement to give them meaning. Thus concerns arise over the validity and ambiguity of the television programme’s information, and the archaeologist’s authority in discerning the past. However, should archaeologists be concerned about portrayal of archaeology in television documentaries? To provide answers to this question, the presentation of archaeological research, sites, objects and researchers in nine documentaries on the National Geographic Channel in the Netherlands in 2013, that were produced in 2012 and 2013, were analysed through ethnographic content analysis. The documentaries mainly focused on the practice of research, including the scientist’s fascination with research. Sometimes research methods were repeated before the camera after it initially had taken place, or they were shown ‘live’ and its results were analysed first-hand. However, the appearance and discussion of the research processes varied per type, possibly due to the structure of the method. In particular, archaeological fieldwork is a difficult process to capture on film, but the process of archaeological interpretation was often embedded in the entire storyline. Amongst other researchers, archaeologists appeared few in number. However, the archaeologists had a specific authoritative role as guides in understanding the past, and they would appear several times in a documentary to provide context or to interpret research results. It was found that certain narrative styles enabled, or disabled, involvement in the research and interpretation processes. There were many cases in which archaeology was presented in an open, yet informative way, while regarding the archaeologists (and researchers in other fields) as authorities. However, research can also be faked or appear unauthentic and authority can be abused. Therefore in communicating archaeology to the public a high degree of transparency is key.Show less
This thesis considers the three Albanian World Heritage sites of Butrint, Berat and Gjirokastra in the light of heritage tourism and sustainable development. These heritage sites have their own...Show moreThis thesis considers the three Albanian World Heritage sites of Butrint, Berat and Gjirokastra in the light of heritage tourism and sustainable development. These heritage sites have their own unique characteristics with much potential for further tourism development and the development of community awareness of their heritage. To safeguard sustainability of this heritage for future generations, the implementation of sustainable and effective management plans to protect the significance of these sites and to mitigate tourism impacts is necessary. In this study the concepts of sustainability and heritage tourism are first explained in the way they are used for the analysis. Subsequently, the World Heritage Sites (WHS) of Butrint, Berat and Gjirokastra are analyzed on the basis of a few sustainability principles to measure the degree of integration of these principles within current heritage management and tourism planning of these sites. The sustainability principles can be outlined as continuity, intergenerational equity, intragenerational equity, diversity, a precautionary principle and interdependence. The outcome of these principles for each heritage site is discussed on the basis of a qualitative content analysis of literature and management plans. Finally, a short comparison is made between the WHS to seek for aspects that can contribute to an improved management of other sites and to seek for aspects that require more attention or improvement.Show less
Archaeologists nowadays are beginning to recognise the importance of community engagement in archaeological work. For the past decades, archaeologists have put their efforts in involving the public...Show moreArchaeologists nowadays are beginning to recognise the importance of community engagement in archaeological work. For the past decades, archaeologists have put their efforts in involving the public into archaeological work. Despite the efforts made by archaeologists to involve the public, archaeologists do not seem to fully understand the needs and wishes of the public. This thesis analysed four different public surveys and one case study in Oss to acquire information on the public opinion on archaeology. Three different perspectives from three different groups are presented: the public, volunteers and professional archaeologists. The results of surveys analysis suggest that the public is well aware of the importance of archaeology and they want to participate in archaeology, but there are not enough opportunities to participate in archaeology and information on archaeology for the public. Some archaeologists fear that the quality of archaeology will decrease if the public is involved, but the results of public surveys and case study show that involving the public can bring positive effects on archaeology and enrich the content of archaeology. There is a need to provide information and opportunities for the public to enter the world of archaeology; archaeologists should not hesitate in taking any action to involve the public in archaeology. More efforts should be made in communicating with the public, including sharing information and offering opportunities to the public to involve in archaeological work. Nowadays, the public’s interests on archaeology is very important and crucial, not only because of ethical reason, but also if archaeology can gain more attentions from the public, and make the public be aware of their heritage, the public will be a very good helper for protecting and preserving the heritage. In the future, it is will be nice to see archaeologists to work with the public in actions of discovering and protecting the past.Show less
In 1992 the European Convention on the Protection of the Archaeological Heritage, also known as the Malta Convention, was held. The treaty was signed by The Netherlands the same day. However, it...Show moreIn 1992 the European Convention on the Protection of the Archaeological Heritage, also known as the Malta Convention, was held. The treaty was signed by The Netherlands the same day. However, it was not ratified until 2007, and implemented in a new set of laws known as the revised Monument Act of 2007. This act ensured that the principles behind Malta, mainly aimed at preservation of archaeology for the future, were now legal boundaries through which archaeology was practiced. The developments in archaeology had started before the Convention 1992, at least for The Netherlands. And at the point of ratification in 2007, a lot of changes in regards to archaeological process had taken place. Archis, the database for registering all archaeological research, started in the beginning of the 90’s, followed by quality regulations for reports set up by the KNA at the turn of the millenium, and since the last decade a system of regulated private companies has been working alongside the previous monopolists: the government and the universities. These changes have caused archaeologists to approach excavations in a different way. But the question of how these changes have impacted archaeology are still being answered. It is believed that the amount of excavations has risen in the last decades, but that the size in excavations has decreased. Trying to touch on the subject of excavation size, this thesis is aimed at answering the question: Has the ratification of the Malta Convention, in 2007, and the revised monument act, which followed the ratification, caused a decrease in the size of excavations between the years 1999 and 2008? This thesis is based on excavation reports from the years 1999 and 2008. These reports have all necessary data pertaining to the size of excavations. The two years also give a good overview of the difference between the data in reports before and after the ratification of the Malta Convention. The data shows that there is an increase in excavation size between 1999 and 2008. In both urban and rural settings. Where the main discussion was leaning towards the impression that large-scale excavations are a thing of the past, nothing seems less likely. It is however very interesting to see the time needed to excavate these larger areas. And the assumption that excavations are becoming smaller seems to be more related to the difference in temporal factors, than in actual square meters.Show less
The illicit trade in cultural objects is one of the largest criminal trades known. According to heritage professionals it is important to inform the public, because this could help fight the...Show moreThe illicit trade in cultural objects is one of the largest criminal trades known. According to heritage professionals it is important to inform the public, because this could help fight the illicit trade. In this thesis I studied if informing the public by museums is considered to be the task of museums according to international conventions, museum codes and heritage professionals and what is currently being organised by museums to inform the public on the illicit trade.Show less
Less-developed countries are restricted in effectively funding the conservation of their cultural landscape heritage sites. Other sources of funds are needed to complement government spending. One...Show moreLess-developed countries are restricted in effectively funding the conservation of their cultural landscape heritage sites. Other sources of funds are needed to complement government spending. One possibility is finding ways to use the benefits that cultural landscapes provide. The ecosystem services framework, which was originally used by nature conservationists, could be a useful analytical concept. In this approach, benefits from environments are divided into different types of ecosystem services. By integrating the different kinds of benefits in one framework, new and old possibilities can be analysed. As a case study, the Ifugao Rice Terraces World Heritage site will be analysed. Besides the agricultural products provided by the IRT, the Ifugao agricultural system also has other benefits. However, more and more terraces are abandoned and deteriorating. This is attributed to the insufficient income of the local Ifugao farmers. The yield of their fields has decreased due to the lack of maintenance of their terraces and irrigation systems, which they are not able to fund themselves. At the same time, their changing socio-economic needs require a higher income as well. As a result, many Ifugao migrate to other regions for higher wages. To increase the income of the Ifugao, cultural and regulating ecosystem services become additional sources of income. Cultural services are already being exploited by tourism, but its earning potential has not yet been reached. Tourism is highly concentrated in one rice terrace cluster, so tourism could be expanded to the other clusters. In addition, regional tourist taxation could be implemented. To exploit regulating ecosystems, a Payment for Ecosystem Services scheme has to be created. This can be done on a global scale through carbon sequestration, or on a regional or local scale through hydrological services. However, relying on these sources of income comes with its own set of problems. Despite this, the financing potential of the ecosystem services too substantial to ignore and I think they may contribute significantly to the conservation of cultural landscape heritage sites.Show less
Cultural heritage plays an important part in the rehabilitation process in post-war societies because it forms the physical part of an ethnic groups’ identity. In countries of the former Yugoslavia...Show moreCultural heritage plays an important part in the rehabilitation process in post-war societies because it forms the physical part of an ethnic groups’ identity. In countries of the former Yugoslavia, a shared narrative is used for rehabilitation purposes and implemented through the reconstruction of cultural heritage. Because the various ethnic groups living in countries of the former Yugoslavia have their own divergent memories to the war, reconstruction as a form of rehabilitation is difficult and disputed. In this thesis, I will show that the main difficulty of rehabilitation through the reconstruction of cultural heritage lies in the fact that it is used as a forced shared narrative, which does not enhance co-operation between ethnic groups, but effectively cements the already existing ethnic segregation. The archaeological heritage manager plays a key role in resolving this problem. Through his extensive background knowledge and methodology, the archaeological heritage manager forms a link between the local community, the national government and international community. Thus, while the national governments, through the involvement of the international community, saw the reconstruction of cultural heritage as a trigger for regional stabilization, results show that it is better used for the revitalization of the local community. Through this, rehabilitation will follow. This thesis focuses on the rehabilitation through the reconstruction of cultural heritage in countries of the former Yugoslavia and focuses on the difficulties there. However, through recognizing these difficulties and coming up with opportunities, the results will be implementable in comparable situations and will add to the solution on how rehabilitation in post-war countries can best be achieved.Show less
Attitudes toward the past can be recognised in many different ways. European worldview in physical protection of cultural heritage, reflecting in the formal heritage laws, has frequently carved out...Show moreAttitudes toward the past can be recognised in many different ways. European worldview in physical protection of cultural heritage, reflecting in the formal heritage laws, has frequently carved out social elements of such heritage rooted in indigenous societies, for example, the belief of sacredness. This research, therefore, focuses on problems that probably arose during the introduction of Western legal systems to protect cultural heritage in non-Western societies: Indonesia, Zimbabwe, Canada and Australia. From the study on sociology and history of law, it shows that European-based law when first introduced to the regions has very often excluded customary law which obtained social respect. This created a gap between legal comprehension and people who are the subject to law. Up to present day these European influences of the legal system regarding to heritage management can still be discerned in international conventions. To bridge this gap, two suggestions are given in this research: one to work cooperatively between the 1972 UNESCO World Heritage and the 2003 UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Conventions; another to reinterpret in situ preservation in the 2001 UNESCO Underwater Cultural Heritage Convention as a way to treat the site with respect. The integration of traditional practices and heritage laws make it possible for indigenous and local people to gain more understanding of the heritage laws and thus to obey to these laws more easily. Hypothetically, the formal heritage laws become more effective.Show less
In this thesis, the current situation on the cooperation between archaeologists and building archaeologists is discussed. Several stakeholders have been taken into account, including educational...Show moreIn this thesis, the current situation on the cooperation between archaeologists and building archaeologists is discussed. Several stakeholders have been taken into account, including educational institutes, a selected amount of municipalities, the Cultural Heritage Agency (RCE), private advice bureaus, an independent foundation as well as rules and regulations concerning both disciplines. Furthermore, several case studies have been outlined concerning proper and less proper integration of archaeological and building archaeological cooperation. Finally, an advice is provided on how conditions can be optimized to facilitate integrated cooperation of the two disciplines. One of the main conclusions is that archaeological research is recorded in the Monument Act (Monumentenwet 1988) and is therefore legally required. Building archaeology is, however, mostly carried out playing and advisory role and is not legally required. Leading from this, for archaeological research all kinds of rules and regulations exist and is furthermore organised into detail, also concerning education. This is in strong contrast with building archaeology which is only carried out on the basis of guidelines, is organised less extensively and is supported by almost no education. One of the main advices is given to the RCE. Here, only since 2009, the two disciplines are organised again under one governmental apparatus. Because of this, the two disciplines are not yet tuned in on each other comprehensively and there is still too much a dichotomy between the two disciplines on this level. The given advice is to let the RCE organise a special project (as has already taken place once) to let the two disciplines come closer together by discussing the opportunities that can be created in order to let cooperation go more smooth and to heave the unnecessary imaginary boundary between the two disciplines. Once archaeology and building archaeology are tuned in on each other better on the national level, the rest of the Dutch heritage management community will probably follow this lead.Show less
The purpose of this research is to identify the threats to archaeological monuments on privately owned land in Ireland, i.e. why and how monuments are being damaged or destroyed, and to find...Show moreThe purpose of this research is to identify the threats to archaeological monuments on privately owned land in Ireland, i.e. why and how monuments are being damaged or destroyed, and to find solutions to this problem that will satisfy the needs of both archaeologists and landowners alike. The methods used to address these issues include a remote survey of archaeological monuments in a research area in Co. Clare, qualitative interviews with landowners, IFA representatives and an archaeologist and a review of similar surveys on the preservation of monuments in Ireland, England and Northern Ireland. The results of all of the methods used in this research identified earthwork monuments, and especially ringforts, as the monuments that have been damaged the most on privately owned land in Ireland. To effectively prevent future damage from being caused to monuments on privately owned land, several solutions will need to be implemented so that they can be made to work in cooperation with each other. Updating the information on the levels of preservation of all monuments and continued monitoring of monuments will give a clear picture of what the current situation is today and any changes to the situation in the future. The issue needs to be fully publicised using all media to reach a maximum number of people. Education initiatives also need to be fully publicised to reach a maximum number of landowners. Moreover, solutions need not only to encourage farmers to preserve archaeological monuments, but to also make it worth their while and to respect their position as a major stakeholder in the Irish landscape.Show less
