The research subject of this thesis is the Continuity of Christianity in Jordan during the rise of the Islam. Christianity itself has a long and complex history in Jordan that can be dated back to...Show moreThe research subject of this thesis is the Continuity of Christianity in Jordan during the rise of the Islam. Christianity itself has a long and complex history in Jordan that can be dated back to the early days of the religion. The subject of this thesis is based on an excavation of a church in Udhruh (Jordan) that was converted into a mosque; the church showed signs of being in longer Christian use during the Muslim reign. This inspirited the will to research Christianity and its continuity in Jordan because of the assumption that Christianity disappeared or stopped when the Islamic reign begun. The purpose of this research was to provide future researchers with a clear story about this transition and providing certain products than can be used for further research. The products that resulted from this research are: a database that consists of information about the churches, multiple spreading maps consisting of all the collected churches, a spreading map consisting of the churches that stayed in use after 630/640 AD, a spreading map that consists of the churches converted into mosques, a spreading map that shows the ‘stayed in use’ churches and the converted churches combined, a table that consists of the collected bishops and a table that consists of the collected monasteries. The results and information about the research goal were retrieved during an extensive literature research. Before starting this research the amount of 7 research questions were formulated: 1. How many churches were present in Jordan before the Islamic reign? 2. How many churches were present in Jordan during the Islamic reign? 3. How did the organizational structure of Christianity develop during the emergence of the Islam? 4. How is it noticeable that a church is converted into a mosque? 5. Which churches in Jordan show signs of being converted into mosques? 6. Which churches in Jordan have been partly used as monasteries? 7. What kind of archaeological remains are proof of the conversion of churches into mosques? The 7 research questions were used as handles in answering the main question: What is the continuity of Christianity in Jordan during the rise of the Islam? During this research 173 churches were collected and researched. The number of 100-165 churches were present before the start of the Islamic reign and the amount of 33 churches were present in Jordan during the Islamic reign. This can indicate that the amount and therefore use of churches did decline during the rise of the Islam. In addition to that seven churches were discovered that showed signs of being converted into a mosque by closing of the apse and/or installing a mihrab (a nice in the wall that shows which way to face during prayer). In the early stages of the research several bishops were collected during the literature study, the amount of 10 bishops were counted in Jordan. When researching the location that the bishops were seated, the information could be used as additional proof for an interesting statement that Udhruh became the new capital of Jordan and Petra became a place of exile. The time of the end of bishopric can also be suggested of being during the time of the rise of the Islam, this is because the seat of the bishop moved to Udhruh and when the church of Udhruh became converted into a mosque it can be suggested that the bishopric also ended there. Furthermore, none of the churches that were collected during the early stage of the research were partly used as monasteries, the monasteries that were found during the research all showed signs of being a separate building from the churches. Some information that was gathered during the research does suggest that Christianity did end or declined very rapidly when the Islam started to rise; the decline in churches, the end of bishopric and the converting of churches into mosques can be seen as ‘proof’. However, the opposite can also be suggested when taking into account the signs that Christianity was still practised during the rise of the Islam; several Christian texts were found at the church in Udhruh that indicate this, new churches were built and 33 churches stayed in use. Together with the statements of several researchers that Christianity continued and even throve during the Islamic rise and the suggestion by for example an inscription that marks a renovation of a church during the Muslim rule, according to researchers it appeared that Christians and Muslims lived peacefully, side by side during the rise of the Islam in the country of Jordan. The results could spark a discussion, this is because the results are based on several English literature sources and only one French source however the native tongue of Jordanians is Arabic and French. More of these publications have not been taking into consideration because of the fact that it was hard to find because the titles of these publications would have been in those two languages and therefore, not that easy to find when these are not languages that are mastered. Furthermore, when these publications would have been found there also would have been a need to find a translator that could help with decipher of the contests of these publications. In addition to the previous statement it could also be discussed if the result that was given during this research can be seen as a final result for the overall subject. This can be argued because the subject is broad and consists of researching a whole country, this takes time. The recommendation is to research this subject in further extent and to perceive the result that was given in this document as a start in answering this big and complex subject.Show less
In 2009 during the excavation of Udhruh, a Byzantine church in southern Jordan, an ensemble of fifteen limestone blocks were found, out of situ. They featured symbols, which have yet to be...Show moreIn 2009 during the excavation of Udhruh, a Byzantine church in southern Jordan, an ensemble of fifteen limestone blocks were found, out of situ. They featured symbols, which have yet to be researched. It is important to pin-point the original locations of the blocks as this will enlarge our understanding of the church and because the location of the blocks could also assist in understanding the engraved symbols, which could be other than Christian in nature. The church and attached town maintained an autonomous Christian community while being controlled by multiple Islamic powers for at least six centuries. This raises questions relating to the presupposed tenuous Muslim-Christian relations in the region. The Levant and Middle East as a whole have long been described as historically unstable as a result of religious tension, but the existence of the church provides a counterargument against this notion. The pin-pointing of the location of the blocks has been done through 3D-analysis, in which the surface condition, the orientation and the curvature of the blocks were determined. The symbols have been analysed by method of 3D analysis and a literature study, focussing on early Christian symbolism. The research concludes that the blocks are divided into a more homogeneous group, the “true” blocks, and three miscellaneous blocks. The true blocks have similar dimensions and attributes. Analysis points to an elevated, semi-suspended original location within a straight wall, probably in the aisles or nave of the core basilica, which is the oldest part of the church. Another object displayed clear curvature and was determined to be part of an archway. The symbols on the blocks are without a doubt Christian in nature, but not all early Christian. The geometrical pattern have been determined to likely be decorative, instead of symbolic. Whereas the shell and the crosses hold symbolic meaning. Out of the three types of crosses, two are also linked to the Crusader period. This could provide evidence for the continued use of the church during the Abbasid, Fatimid and Ayyubid periods, an epoch of which still not much is known concerning Udhruh.Show less
After the Roman conquests of Northwestern Europe at the beginning of the era, new material and religious cultures emerged. Several artefacts in the four Northwestern provinces (Germania Superior,...Show moreAfter the Roman conquests of Northwestern Europe at the beginning of the era, new material and religious cultures emerged. Several artefacts in the four Northwestern provinces (Germania Superior, Germania Inferior, Gallia Belgica and Britannia) emerged over the following centuries that contained influences from both Roman and indigenous religious culture. In these regions, a hybrid Romano-Celtic monument appeared; the Jupiter column. In this thesis, the regional elements on the columns are discussed in order to understand and explain the hybridity of this Romano-Celtic monument. The discussion about the regional elements is put in light of syncretism, which describes the process of two or more different religious cultures, here the Roman and the Celtic one, merging into a new regional religious culture, in this case the Romano-Celtic one. Because of that, on one hand, the different iconographical meanings of the regional elements are discussed to determine the degree of possible hybridity. On the other hand, a database was made to create a convenient overview of the (possible) regional elements. This has been done to observe possible trends and, if applicable, to notify differences between the provinces in the Jupiter column cult. Moreover, the general assumptions of Roman regional religion has been explicated to use as framework. The Jupiter column cult was one of the best examples of a syncretised cult in the Northwestern Roman Empire. Both the database and the religious framework have shown that the regional elements of the columns had a multi-interpretable nature. It is clear that, together with the notion of an inconsistent choice of deities that accompanied the Jupiter-image on top, the Jupiter columns neither had a fixed lay-out nor a set iconography. The cult was one of representation, in which depicting deities and other religious symbols alone was the dedication on in itself and in which dedicants had relatively much freedom. The apparent strong connection with the Romano-Celtic religious pantheon caused a higher degree of hybridity, causing a sufficient new religious monument-form to emerge. Within the domain of the pantheon, there was a big variety of Celtic, Graeco-Roman or hybrid interpretations possible, which in my opinion typifies the Romano-Celtic religion. Because of this, Jupiter columns are a prominent example of the material culture and the society in which they found themselves.Show less
The research and knowledge of Roman vici in the Netherlands is still very limited. So far, the function and role of these vici and their regions are only researched and concluded on a micro-scale....Show moreThe research and knowledge of Roman vici in the Netherlands is still very limited. So far, the function and role of these vici and their regions are only researched and concluded on a micro-scale. The lack of research suggests that this kind of settlements were not important for the organisation and operation of an area. However, the opposite is true. The aim of this thesis is to research the functions of the Roman vici located at the Meuse in the area between Cuijk and Maastricht. In order to be able to research the functions, the two vici with the most extended knowledge have been selected for a more detailed research: Venlo and Cuijk and their region. These vici and regions have been researched by a literature review of the archaeological data and location analysis and by a comparison. The purpose of the literature review was to analyse the archaeological remains, such as houses, and the material culture, among which mainly ceramics and coins. Both indicate the kind of connections of the vicus and how wealthy the inhabitants were. The location analysis is based on research of vici abroad. The analysis consists of three aspects: the geological location, the presence of natural resources/life necessities and the infrastructure. All of this information could indicate possible functions. The vici of Venlo and Cuijk with their regions have been compared in order to clarify the differences and similarities. Only few similarities were observed, mainly concerning the geological location. Noteworthy is that the civilian vici were similar during the first century. When the change from wooden to stone building material occurred, the vici became distinguishable. The material culture, industrial activities, infrastructure, region and relations to large cities are in no means the same. In the end, it became clear that Venlo and Cuijk are very different vici with different phases, developments and material culture. It appears that Venlo was mainly focussed on trade over water and Cuijk was focussed on trade over land. Both can be considered as regional centres with an important role in the distribution of materials and the spread of Roman culture. In time Cuijk became much more prominent in its region. Several archaeological remains indicate that Cuijk gained a higher status, while Venlo was abandoned in the end of the second century. The results of this thesis emphasise that the functions of the vici in the region Cuijk-Maastricht could be quite varied. It points out that the vici were an indispensable and significant aspect of the Roman period.Show less
Nijmegen was een van de grote Romeinse steden in Germania Inferior, waarvan een significant deel bestond uit militaire bebouwing. Opvallend genoeg zijn er op de toppen van de stuwwal, de hoogste...Show moreNijmegen was een van de grote Romeinse steden in Germania Inferior, waarvan een significant deel bestond uit militaire bebouwing. Opvallend genoeg zijn er op de toppen van de stuwwal, de hoogste locaties in de omgeving, geen Romeinse wachttorens bekend die hier wel verwacht kunnen worden vanwege het goede zicht op de omgeving. Op basis van de theorie over signaalsystemen tussen wachttorens (Woolliscroft 2010) is, met behulp van viewshed analysis een aantal locaties aangewezen die geschikt zijn voor wachttorens. Van deze locaties is de bekende archeologische data uit Archis en opgravingrapporten bekeken. Met deze informatie is een verwachtingskaart gemaakt van locaties met de meeste kans op de wachttorens.Show less
The aim of this research is to define how oral history can be used as a source of information for archaeological research, and how it can be complementary to an approach in which the local...Show moreThe aim of this research is to define how oral history can be used as a source of information for archaeological research, and how it can be complementary to an approach in which the local community is included. By using the information for practical as well as ethical research engagements through an extensive analysis of the local perspective by looking at historicity and multivocality, it is shown that much more can be achieved with oral history research when the local perspective is thoroughly understood and precisely described. Therefore, Oral history as part of archaeological research is placed in between archaeological ethnography and community archaeology. Analysis of oral history data supports knowledge of the local display of historicization and thus helps to understand the information as deriving from a local perspective, which improves its usefulness for archaeological research. By looking at the presentation of historicity through specific characteristics of oral history storylines, a new framework of reference is presented for further research on combining oral history and archaeology. When the perspective of the local community is understood, information from oral history interviews can be included in the archaeological research as part of a multivocal interpretation of the past. Including voices of the local community and therefore adjusting archaeological research to their perspective and valuation of heritage promotes the active involvement and inclusion of the local community.Show less
