There is an academic and societal gap in distinguishing between cyber espionage and other cyber operations such as cyber-attacks. Scholar’s and the media are contradicting each other when referring...Show moreThere is an academic and societal gap in distinguishing between cyber espionage and other cyber operations such as cyber-attacks. Scholar’s and the media are contradicting each other when referring to cyber activities. These contradictions may create problems for policymakers, as there can be no international regulation if there is no distinction between these two operations. Therefore, this thesis analyzes the case studies of Stuxnet and Duqu and how they inform us about cyber espionage. This thesis used a qualitative and an inductive approach in order to analyze the case studies. The results indicate that cyber espionage is used for secretly stealing information without inflicting damage. In addition, cyber espionage can be a part of a multiphase campaign where it operates as a pre-face for a cyber-attack. Moreover, as there is an absence of a regulatory framework regarding cyber espionage, states are motivated to invest in their offensive and defensive cyber capabilities.Show less
Master thesis | Crisis and Security Management (MSc)
open access
Freshwater is an essential yet scarce good, that is predicted to only become scarcer because of climate change and growing populations. In addition, freshwater in rivers is often shared between...Show moreFreshwater is an essential yet scarce good, that is predicted to only become scarcer because of climate change and growing populations. In addition, freshwater in rivers is often shared between multiple countries. Despite multiple predictions by scholars and experts, states often do not go to war over freshwater. Instead, most disputes end in the signing of a treaty. However, these treaties are not always fair and do not, actually, always end conflict. In the view of this research, treaties are merely a way in which states fight, without using violence, and should thus be seen as a part of ongoing conflict, rather than the end of it. In addition, despite theoretical predictions, international organisations do not play a large role in the creation of River Basin Organisations and neither do hydrohegemons.Show less
