The origin of speech is one of the biggest unanswered questions in the evolution of mankind. Scientist from all over the world from different disciplines using different methodologies have been...Show moreThe origin of speech is one of the biggest unanswered questions in the evolution of mankind. Scientist from all over the world from different disciplines using different methodologies have been trying to solve the mystery that is the origin of speech. An unambiguous answer however, remains absent. Using the method of comparative morphology and microbiomechanical studies, it can be studied when in our evolutionary history the anatomy fit to support speech production first arose, and thus which species first had the ability to talk. This thesis looks at published data on different hard structures of the vocal tract, in particular the hyoid, hard palate and mandible, of Australopithecus afarensis, Homo erectus, the SH hominins and Homo neanderthalensis to compare them to those of the modern human and non-human great apes vocal tract, in order to discover what we can infer about the origin speech based on the evolution of the vocal tract. This comparison has shown that based on their features, these hominins can be divided into two categories. The first category is that of archaic morphology and is characterized by a hyoid, hard palate and mandible that most closely resembles the anatomical features of the non-human great apes, in particular, chimpanzees. This means they possessed a bullashaped hyoid body, a long and broad hard palate and a long and narrow, chinless mandible. To this group belong the Australopithecus afarensis and Homo erectus. The second category is that of modern morphology and is characterized by the hyoid, hard palate and mandible that most closely resembles the anatomical features of modern humans. This means a bar-like hyoid body, a shorter and more narrow hard palate and a short and broad mandible with a bony protuberance, the chin. To this groups belongs the SH hominins the Homo neanderthalensis. Based on the results, it can be concluded that the anatomical features of the vocal tract fit to support the production of speech were already in place with, at least, Neanderthals. Therefore, Neanderthals could speak. The way forward for future studies into the origin of speech mainly is more data, both in terms of quantity and more species, though this is not something that can be forced. Establishing the origin of speech might open up a new path into studying the origin of language, a related, but not identical topic.Show less
Neanderthals, once depicted as brutish and underdeveloped, have gained recognition and a more nuanced understanding in contemporary research. Recent advancements in archaeological tools and...Show moreNeanderthals, once depicted as brutish and underdeveloped, have gained recognition and a more nuanced understanding in contemporary research. Recent advancements in archaeological tools and methodologies, such as ancient DNA sequencing, fossil track analysis, and the study of cut marks and butchering practices, have shed light on the intelligence and social complexity of Neanderthals. However, these findings have not been synthesized into a cohesive framework, hindering a comprehensive up-to-date understanding of Neanderthal society. This thesis aims to address this gap by conducting a literature review of modern case studies that employ innovative methodologies, such as the ones previously mentioned. Drawing upon a primatological framework, which acknowledges the shared fundamental behavioural characteristics among both archaic and modern humans as primates, the study examines the social organization, social structure, and mating system of Neanderthals, which are terminology that can succinctly be used to describe any primate social system. Through the analysis of diverse case studies, it is estimated that Neanderthals lived in groups of fewer than 50 members, with some females migrating between groups for mating, while others staying in their natal group, leading to instances of incest. Genetic studies indicate that certain Neanderthal groups were isolated, suggesting a broad spatial cohesion among the groups with significant geographical separation, which likely resulted in close relatives mating with each other. However, this appears to be the case for Neanderthals living during a period of drastic climate changes, potentially bearing greater implications for their extinction. Regarding agonistic behavior, males exhibit lower intragroup aggression, while females display a dispersal-egalitarian pattern. Neanderthals demonstrated social integration capabilities with other hominid species, while the precise age and sexual composition of their groups remain a matter of future research. This study underscores the importance of current methodologies in uncovering the intricacies of Neanderthal society, providing valuable insights into their social organization and behaviour.Show less
This paper examines the factors that may potentially influence a specific selection of animal in the slate plaquettes of the Magdalenian site of Gönnersdorf in the German Rhineland. Georges Sauvet...Show moreThis paper examines the factors that may potentially influence a specific selection of animal in the slate plaquettes of the Magdalenian site of Gönnersdorf in the German Rhineland. Georges Sauvet identifies the dominance of the horse in Magdalenian parietal art within the Franco-Cantabrian region, and the associated animistic implications. The goal of my research was to observe if the same dominance was observable outside this region. The characteristics Sauvet defined as making a representation ‘prominent’ were modified for Gönnersdorf for the purpose of making a comparison. Prominent plaquettes were reviewed on a case-by-case basis. It was found that the Gönnersdorf assemblage did not bear close similarities to Sauvet’s conclusions, nor did they align with a specific animistic ontology. It is suggested that the prominence of the horse at Gönnersdorf is most visible in terms of the frequency of depiction, and the formal exemplarity of individual representations. The results indicated two potential alternate functions for the plaquettes: their use as a storytelling medium, and as a communicative aid for culturally separate hunter-gatherer groups aggregating at the site. It was stressed that these two functions may not only be related, but serve a dual purpose.Show less
The Quina flaking system is a relatively new Middle Palaeolithic lithic technocomplex recognized and studied until now only in Southwestern France. It has been argued that this technology was...Show moreThe Quina flaking system is a relatively new Middle Palaeolithic lithic technocomplex recognized and studied until now only in Southwestern France. It has been argued that this technology was developed by Neanderthal groups to cope with the decreasing global temperatures and the environmental changes of the last glaciation. The Quina system, until now, is largely unattested in North Europe, where the glacial climate was more pronounced. Why is a technology evolved for the survival in cold environments absent in regions particularly affected by the glaciation? The presence of this technology in the Northern fringes of the Neanderthals’ ecological niche might shed light on the reasons behind Neanderthals’ technological behaviour. It might further provide important clues for a better understanding of whether the variability in the Middle Palaeolithic archaeological record derives from cultural diversity or functional/technical necessities or other factors. This research identifies, through quantitative and qualitative analyses, and comparative studies of lithic materials, the technological traces of unretouched flakes from the site of Colmont-Ponderosa (South Limburg, the Netherlands). This study confirms that at some point during the last glaciation, the Neanderthal groups were users of the Quina technology. The presence of this technology in the North and at such a distance (around seven-hundred kilometers) from the closest certain Quina sites might be the result of techno-cultural convergence. But it might also indicate the point of origin of this technology, which was later dispersed to the Sout, when the environment became too harsh, or it might indicate a dispersal from the South to the North. To confirm this hypothesis a re-evaluation of other Northern assemblages is necessary: if the Quina technology is present at Colmont-Ponderosa, it could be present elsewhere, overlooked because of the relative novelty of the Quina technocomplex.Show less
Climate change has had an influence on hominin evolution for quite some time and led to several speciation and adaptation events. With the later hominin species climate change has less of an impact...Show moreClimate change has had an influence on hominin evolution for quite some time and led to several speciation and adaptation events. With the later hominin species climate change has less of an impact, and extinction theories for the Neanderthals tend to lean in other directions. Despite this, the role of climate change in the Neanderthal extinction is not clear. Older research tended to be focused on global climate records that might not be representative of the smaller climate differences across highly geographically diverse continents. This research provides an overview of local palaeoenvironmental reconstructions for the period of the Middle to Upper Palaeolithic transition in research from 2015-2021 and focuses on the different proxies and climate factors, the stability of the climate, the scale of the research performed, and the perceived influence of climate change on local Neanderthal extinctions. These will be compared per major region (Iberian Peninsula, Apennine Peninsula, Balkan Peninsula, and mid-latitude Europe) in order to determine if any patterns exist. The results show a diversity in the applied proxies and a general trend of deteriorating climate around the time of the Neanderthal extinction. The majority of the research concludes that climate change did not play a major role in the Neanderthal extinction. Despite this, there are some anomalous locations that do not agree with the general consensus this overview produced. Future research at these locations could provide information to nuance the current picture of climate change or corroborate the overall consensus.Show less
The Middle Palaeolithic is an important period in the development of mortuary behaviour. During this period, Neanderthals started burying their dead before Homo sapiens arrived in Europe. Their...Show moreThe Middle Palaeolithic is an important period in the development of mortuary behaviour. During this period, Neanderthals started burying their dead before Homo sapiens arrived in Europe. Their mortuary behaviour knows variability in several aspects, which makes an interesting case in the debate surrounding behaviour complexity. The central problem that is explored here is what the variation in mortuary behaviour between the Neanderthal multiple burial sites of La Ferrassie and Shanidar Cave indicates about Neanderthal mortuary practice in the Middle Palaeolithic and how this helps to understand their behaviour in an evolutionary context. La Ferrassie and Shanidar Cave are two of the few Neanderthal burial sites that contain multiple burials and vary in their organization in space and time. Using new evidence produced with the most recent techniques, I re-examined the two burial sites to compare their degree of organization and continuity. The study confirms that La Ferrassie displays spatial structuring of the burials, which attests to a complex interaction with the dead, while at Shanidar Cave a degree of organization is less evident and the mortuary behaviour is limited to a briefer period of time. However, it is noted that the burials at La Ferrassie and Shanidar Cave are both structured in their own manner. The diversity of responses to death is part of the emergence of the complex behaviour that would unfold in the Upper Palaeolithic. Furthermore, both sites provide evidence for a mortuary function of the cave and further explore the symbolic role of these natural formations, while keeping the preservation bias of such places in mind.Show less
The Neanderthal extinction is not fully understood and there is no common consensus on the date of the demise of Neanderthals in Europe. In the Crimean peninsula, located in south-eastern Europe,...Show moreThe Neanderthal extinction is not fully understood and there is no common consensus on the date of the demise of Neanderthals in Europe. In the Crimean peninsula, located in south-eastern Europe, there is evidence for a longer persistence. This thesis investigates the late Neanderthal persistence on the Crimean peninsula. The foraging radius and the settlement patterns of the Crimean Micoquian and the Western Crimean Mousterian are discussed together with analysis of the known radiocarbon dates to gain understanding of the correlation between them. To test the hypothesis that the foraging radius impacted the longer persistence of Neanderthals populations, secondary literature has been analyzed regarding the environmental, lithic and faunal assemblages. The results show that the foraging radius is difficult to determine but it did not have a major influence on the persistence of Neanderthals in Crimea. The radiocarbon datings together with the environmental data concur with the later persistence of Neanderthal populations. Moreover, the Crimean Micoquian was highly adapted in Crimea and especially the mountainous region. The adaptation together with the seasonal movement of prey led to more interaction between Neanderthal populations, which resulted in a potentially higher fitness. This needs to be tested in future research by, for example, the extraction of aDNA from samples of soil of Late Middle Palaeolithic sites. The limitations with this method of testing are the lack of Neanderthal fossils dating to this late period and the presence of palimpsest in many of the Late Middle Palaeolithic sites. Additionally, Russian and Ukrainian literature from previous excavations needs to be translated and re-evaluated to gain more knowledge about the Crimean Middle Palaeolithic as a whole.Show less
In this thesis a reduction model on the retouched blades of layer US04 (sup.) of Les Cottés was proposed. Reduction is the resharpening of an artefact to maintain a sharp, usable edge. It has been...Show moreIn this thesis a reduction model on the retouched blades of layer US04 (sup.) of Les Cottés was proposed. Reduction is the resharpening of an artefact to maintain a sharp, usable edge. It has been widely observed both in ethnographic studies as in archaeological cases. It served an argument in the Bordes-Binford debate on what caused the variability in Middle-Palaeolithic assemblages. Reduction is nowadays used to gain information on site functions, such as the use-life of tools, mobility, duration of occupation and raw material availability. In this thesis a model, based on typology, with different parameters was proposed. This model consists of three types of blades that are part of a continuum of lateral retouch. The site where the material originates from is Les Cottés, Vienne, France. This is a cave site with an excellent sequence covering both the Middle-Palaeolithic and the Upper- Palaeolithic. The layer where the material originates from is US04 (sup.), which dates to the Aurignacian. Results have been obtained through measuring and classifying artefacts. Measurements were taken with a calliper and a protractor. The results were rather unexpected. Most of the parameters did not follow their hypothesis. A reduction model on the retouched blades could not be confirmed. Several arguments were given on what might have been the cause. Those were 1. methodological aspects, 2. wrong defining of the parameters (and blank selection beforehand), and 3. the abundant raw material in proximity of the site. The level of reduction was generally low and pieces had a short use-life. This would suggest a high mobility and a short occupation span, but the proximity of abundant raw material should be considered. Suggestions for an adjustment to the model and suggestions for further research were given. A reduction model could, at least in this study, not be validated, however it was shown that the gained knowledge from these models is contributing to solving important archaeological issues regarding site functions.Show less
Summary There are many differences between the Upper-Paleolithic, the period which is often associated with the Anatomically Modern Human, and the Middle-Paleolithic, a period which is often...Show moreSummary There are many differences between the Upper-Paleolithic, the period which is often associated with the Anatomically Modern Human, and the Middle-Paleolithic, a period which is often associated with the Neanderthal. One of those differences is the increased use of standardized bone tools in the Upper-Paleolithic. These standardized bone tools were used for very specific purposes. An example of such a standardized bone tool is the ‘lissoir’ (the smoother). The lissoir is a bone tool that was used to make hides more impermeable and lustrous and tougher. In 2013 Soressi et al. (2013) published an article in which it was stated that four lissoirs from the Middle Paleolithic from two different sites (Abri Peyrony en Pech de l’Aze) were found. Soressi et al. (2013) suggest that there was possibly a cultural diffusion from Neanderthals to Anatomically Modern Humans. To investigate this theory, the Middle Paleolithic lissoirs were compared with the lissoirs from the Aurignacian (a period in the Upper Paleolithic) in this research. This research is based on publicated lissoirs from Southwest France. For this research an extensive database was made, containing parameters which among others concerned; the site, the sizes and the morphology of the lissoirs, the material and the technology that was used to produce the lissoirs and the absence or presence of use-wear, weathering, root etching, gnawing, digestion and decoration. The database contains 52 lissoirs from 16 sites. The results of the research show us that there are multiple similarities and differences between the lissoirs from the Middle Paleolithic and the Aurignacian. However, because of a lack of data, the research question cannot be answered univocal: based on this research it cannot be refuted that the Neanderthals invented the lissoir and the Anatomically Modern Humans imitated the Neanderthals. New research, in which the lissoirs from the Aurignacian are studied, are necessary. The main items that should be studied about the Aurignacian lissoirs are the curvature, the animal species that were used to produce the lissoirs, the shapes of the fractures, the use-wear ont the lissoirs and the technology used to produce the lissoirs. This would make a comparison between the Aurignacian and the Middle Paleolithic lissoirs better.Show less
Numerous recent studies have been focused on the last glacial period and its impact on human adaptation. The results turned out to be legitimately sufficient due to the relatively broad preserved...Show moreNumerous recent studies have been focused on the last glacial period and its impact on human adaptation. The results turned out to be legitimately sufficient due to the relatively broad preserved archaeological record (Gamble et al. 2004, 244-247). Nevertheless not all parts of the Palaeolithic Europe have been well investigated like Germany, France and the Iberian Peninsula. This BA thesis gives an insight in the Upper Palaeolithic hunter and gatherer societies of the Northwestern part of the Balkan, including Slovenia, Croatia and Bosnia & Herzegovina, during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), dating from 26.5ka to approximately 19ka calendar years ago. The primary research will discuss the hypothesis whether the latter named regions were a possible refugium for hunter and gatherer communities from north and central Europe. An inventory of Upper Palaeolithic sites located in the Northwestern Balkan region, provived a set of data including the faunal remains, the lithic industries and the stratigraphical sequences. The outcome resulted in a divided conclusion, on the one hand stating that all 7 sites included in the inventory yielded traces of hominid occupation corresponding with a frequently occupated Balkan region during the entire Last Glacial Maximum. The inventory data on the other hand, did not prove the presence or origin from Central European hominids. Whereas the traces of occupation could have also been from indigenous localities. More specialistic research focused on genetic DNA shall reveal these ambiguities in the future.Show less
In this bachelor thesis I investigate whether Neanderthals had a sexual division of labour or not. I established three hypotheses: 1) Neanderthals had a sexual division of labour where males hunt...Show moreIn this bachelor thesis I investigate whether Neanderthals had a sexual division of labour or not. I established three hypotheses: 1) Neanderthals had a sexual division of labour where males hunt and females gather plant foods and perform other activities, 2) Neanderthals had a sexual division of labour where males and females hunt but males perform the most dangerous tasks, 3) there was no sexual division of labour and males and females hunted and gathered in equal amounts. To find out if Neanderthals had a sexual division of labour, a meta-study of two osteological analyses applied to Neanderthal bones was performed. The first methods that was used was a comparison of the shape and robusticity of male and female Neanderthal limb bones compared to samples of modern human huntergatherers and sedentary populations. Secondly the distribution of trauma across the skeletons of male and female Neanderthals was compared. In both of the analyses the evidence pointed towards the first hypothesis. The evidence however was too limited. The small sample size of sexable Neanderthals was the largest issue. I concluded that according to the data gathered in this thesis hypothesis 1 is the most likely. However, none of the three hypotheses can be rejected confidently due to the limited evidence.Show less
The discovery of remains of a lion in the Gran Dolina cave (Atapuerca, Spain) with pronounced signs of butchering makes one wonder why hominids would want to hunt for a large carnivore without...Show moreThe discovery of remains of a lion in the Gran Dolina cave (Atapuerca, Spain) with pronounced signs of butchering makes one wonder why hominids would want to hunt for a large carnivore without projectile weapons. These lion remains are special, but not unique in the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic of Europe. Traces of hunting for lions and wolves are present at a limited number of sites, and procurement of brown bear and cave bear is widespread. In this paper I explore a costly signalling explanation for hunting on these large carnivores. The costly signalling theory states that animals can use signalling to show a quality that is otherwise not easily observed. If the signal is truly costly, this guarantees a level of honesty and receivers of the signal can benefit by responding to it. In our hominid case, strong men can show their hunting quality by engaging in risky hunts for large carnivores. Observing females will then preferentially mate with those males and competitors will be deterred. Anthropological studies apply costly signalling theory to explain deviations from the expected patterns of optimal foraging theory. I will discuss an anthropological case study and then return to the archaeological situation to asses the value of costly signalling for hunting for large carnivores in the European Palaeolithic. Showing the results of signalling in the archaeological record is difficult, but indirect observations can be used. The main value of costly signalling theory lies in its ability to explain economically unexpected behaviour and in introducing sexual selection to European Palaeolithic archaeology.Show less
In this thesis one of the most exceptional aspects of Upper-Palaeolithic art is discussed, namely the occurrence and meaning of therianthropes, human-animal hybrids. Their first undisputed...Show moreIn this thesis one of the most exceptional aspects of Upper-Palaeolithic art is discussed, namely the occurrence and meaning of therianthropes, human-animal hybrids. Their first undisputed occurrence started in the Aurignacian (40-28 ky), which happened to coincide with the arrival of AMH in Europe. After this point, therianthropes are found throughout the entire human history, in a wide variety of worldwide cultures. What makes them so appealing is not just their ambiguous visual nature, but in particular their enigmatic meaning and the different ways they are perceived. Already since the early days of therianthrope research, their meaning has aroused much debate. Interpretations of l'art pour l'art, totemism, hunting magic and means of communication have passed the review. A widely professed theory is the shamanistic interpretation, put forward by South-African scholar David Lewis-Williams. He proposed that therianthropes were hybrid creatures seen by shamans during the last stage of a trance, in which all sorts of visions would merge with each other. In recent years the neurocognitive approach has gained many followers: this theory applies cognitive neuroscience to evolutionary cognitive archaeology. This in order to interpret specific patterns of archaeological evidence, in terms of the cognition of those who produced it and the evolutionary occurrence of specific features of human cognition. According to the proponents of this model, therianthropes are a classical example of the capabilities of the modern mind, that is able to merge two or more separate abstract concepts into one. All necessary components of this ability are believed to have evolved over thousands of years and probably started in H. heidelbergensis. Both theories have some appeal, yet they remain close to impossible to prove, because it is so hard to make inferences about the state of mind of Palaeolithic people and their intentions behind the production of enigmatic creatures such as therianthropes.Show less
The aim of this thesis is to study the function of prehistoric hearths and to take the first step in creating guidelines for the excavation, sampling and analysis of prehistoric hearths. Although...Show moreThe aim of this thesis is to study the function of prehistoric hearths and to take the first step in creating guidelines for the excavation, sampling and analysis of prehistoric hearths. Although the study of hearths and their function can provide valuable information about past human behaviour there appear to be no real guidelines available for this type of research. This results in loss of valuable information and possible misinterpretation of hearths. Part 1 of this thesis gives an introduction of various aspects of hearths, such as their origins, their forms and functions, different types of fuel and some analysis methods that can be applied to study them. Part 2 consists of a case study of a hearth from the French middle Neolithic site Trinité-sur-Mer. For this study one of the 15 hearths present at the site was analysed in order to determine its function. For this purpose reflectance analysis carried out on the charcoal fragments from three different samples from the hearth in order to get an idea of the temperatures that were reached in the hearth. Some specific choices regarding the manner of sampling and processing the samples were made and phytolith analysis was carried out to determine whether these choices resulted in as little damage and loss of material as possible. It was found that the choices made within this study had the desired effect. Furthermore the reflectance analysis and fuel determination showed that the hearth from Trinité-sur-Mer probably was a domestic hearth fuelled with wood of Quercus sp. and reached temperatures of at least 400 °C.Show less
Deze scriptie handelt over de vondstlaag 2/1 van het meer bekken Neumark-Nord 2 gelegen in Sachsen-Anhalt te Duitsland. Neumark-Nord is een archeologische vindplaats bestaande uit 2 meer bekkens...Show moreDeze scriptie handelt over de vondstlaag 2/1 van het meer bekken Neumark-Nord 2 gelegen in Sachsen-Anhalt te Duitsland. Neumark-Nord is een archeologische vindplaats bestaande uit 2 meer bekkens daterend uit het Eem en 1 meerbekken uit het Holstein waarbij zowel archeologische als paleontologische objecten zijn gevonden. Het doel van dit onderzoek is nagaan welke taphonomische processen invloed hadden op het ontstaan van de archeologische site en op welke manier dit zich uit op de vondstassemblage uit laag 2/1c. Uit het onderzoek komt naar voren dat een groot deel van het assemblage bloot heeft gestaan aan zowel horizontale als verticale verplaatsing, dit blijkt uit de totale hoeveelheid vondsten en de grootte van de vondsten per vierkante meter. Ongeveer de helft van de vuurstenen artefacten groter dan 10 mm was gebroken, dit is waarschijnlijk het resultaat van golven of van processen zoals slope wash. Aangezien het meer gedurende een lange periode droog heeft gestaan, zal de invloed van golfbewegingen gering zijn geweest. De Neumark-Nord sites hebben bloot gestaan aan zowel C-transforms als Ntransforms, deze zijn samen verantwoordelijk voor de vorming van de vindplaats, zoals deze nu bij archeologen bekend is. De opgravingstechnieken hadden een grote invloed op de vondstassemblage. Een deel van de vierkante meters moest op een andere manier worden opgegraven, vanwege tijdsdruk. Het resultaat hiervan is duidelijk te zien aan het feit dat de hoeveelheid vondsten uit deze vierkante meters opmerkelijk lager is dan de vondsten uit de andere vierkante meters.Show less
