The coming together of foreign cultures and goods in the ancient Roman world is extraordinary. Here, the specific role and contribution of various foreign cultures can be analysed from several...Show moreThe coming together of foreign cultures and goods in the ancient Roman world is extraordinary. Here, the specific role and contribution of various foreign cultures can be analysed from several different angles. With a keen interest in Indo-Roman trade, this thesis investigates into the Indian objects that were brought over to the Roman world as a result of this trade. This includes objects ranging from spices and condiments, to various fabrics, precious stones, and even ivory objects. In contrast to the influences of Hellenistic and Egyptian art as seen in ancient Roman art and architecture, Indian objects played a much more domestic role. Comments by ancient Roman authors have allowed a glimpse into how these objects penetrated the ancient Roman daily life, and how quickly they gained popularity. Their perceptions about the Indian objects and the fascination of the land of India, go hand in hand in, particularly when we explore the reasons behind their demand and popularity. The spices seemed to have reached all the kitchens in the Roman society, from Rome to all of its provinces as well. The Indian fabrics made up a lot of the garments worn by Roman citizens. Precious Indian stones were found in the jewellery of many of the Roman matrons. A rather curious Ivory statuette of an Indian woman discovered in a small house at the site of Pompeii, reflects the Roman curation of Indian artefacts. The influence of the image of India and its objects is very clear from literary sources, but it is necessary to compare these with the archaeological material available to us, and to investigate into how they can contribute in getting an even better understanding of this cultural exchange. This thesis thus takes into consideration all these factors to formulate a conclusion on the idea of “India in the lives of Ancient Romans".Show less
This research focuses on participatory management and explores how issues with implementation manifest themselves in an environment outside of the Western democratic context within which they are...Show moreThis research focuses on participatory management and explores how issues with implementation manifest themselves in an environment outside of the Western democratic context within which they are formed. It is argued here that although UNESCO is attempting to be inclusive of a variety of cultures, it still operates from a Eurocentric perspective and this creates unrealistic expectations of nation states that have a different cultural and institutional construction. The archaeological site of Nemrud Daǧ, located in southeastern Turkey, was chosen as a case study to illustrate the arguments made in this paper. This thesis could be interpreted as an in-depth stakeholder analysis for the site, highlighting problematic areas between stakeholders and the social, political and economic context which create them. The emphasis here is on the context that creates significance as opposed to the significance itself. This is because it is these factors that dictate significance and also create obstacles with participation. The Turkish Republic is not in the same position as Western Europe, yet it has a long history of aspiring to be. This is what makes the position of the country and its attitudes towards heritage so fascinating.Show less
This thesis explores the biography of the Dying Niobid, a fifth century BC Greek statue that was found in Rome. Previous research on Greek sculptural art has mainly focussed on the objects as a...Show moreThis thesis explores the biography of the Dying Niobid, a fifth century BC Greek statue that was found in Rome. Previous research on Greek sculptural art has mainly focussed on the objects as a representation of the Classical Greek period. When looking at the Dying Niobid it becomes clear that this sculpture, one among a great body of Greek sculptures brought to Rome, has functioned in more than one context throughout its life, the ‘Greek’ context being just one of them. Therefore the question to be asked must no longer be what does the object represent, but what does it do in these different contexts? With the object as point of departure, this research will focus on the “active” role of the Dying Niobid in terms of power, influence and agency. To enable this, the main objective for this thesis is to apply a fundamentally different approach and methodology to Greek sculptures in Rome; a “cultural biographical approach” to objects. Through the methodology of the cultural biography, it is possible to take all of the contexts in which the object has functioned in consideration and reconstruct the way in which the agency and power of the object can change and accumulate throughout its existence. Exploring the biography of the Niobid leads us through different functions and appropriations of Greek art. From a fifth century BC Apollo temple in Greece, the story of the Niobid leads to Rome; the Temple of Apollo Sosianus, a Republican temple restored in Augustan times and further on to the Horti Sallustiani, a garden. In the realms of this garden the Niobid was excavated in 1906, followed by a series of events and political dispute concerning the statue. At the present the Dying Niobid still functions in Rome, on display in the Museo Nazionale Romano; Palazzo Massimo. This case-study is placed in a theoretical framework of symmetrical archaeology. Through this framework the aim is to achieve symmetry between not only the importance of the role of things, humans and other entities within each context, but also between the different life phases of the object. This will enable us to say something on the changes of meaning and agency of the object throughout time and space, and add to the wider debate on the role of Greek objects in the Roman world.Show less
This thesis is a study in the transformation of Alexander the Great’s image throughout Hellenistic times. It starts out with an introduction to Alexander’s world and the research questions that...Show moreThis thesis is a study in the transformation of Alexander the Great’s image throughout Hellenistic times. It starts out with an introduction to Alexander’s world and the research questions that this study will be focusing on. It is followed by an extended look into the image he created of himself during his life, followed by the time just after his death and finally the later Hellenistic eras. As part of that, this thesis also goes into the background that led to him creating this image, studying his life from his early days, on to his conquests and finally his death. The Hellenistic world in general and its development during and after Alexander’s death, both politically and culturally, gets the same treatment. As the main artifacts chosen to show the change in his image are the sculptures of his likeness, their origins and development are part of the study as well. Both the reasoning behind them from Alexander himself, the effect they had on the hellenistic world as well their unique qualities in comparison to other ruler statues will be subjects handled as well. The study in general covers the sculptures from the early Lysippan varieties to the myriad of statues from the later Hellenistic kingdoms, stopping at the advent of Roman times. A brief interlude, that goes into the history of the study of Hellenistic sculpture and its archaeological context, is included as well. Problems that arise when studying Hellenistic sculpture are introduced this way as well, as they will play an important rule when discussing the three sculptures part of this study focuses on. Because as part of the thesis, three specific examples are chosen as case-studies from three different parts of the Hellenistic world to show off their context, development and local influences. The first being the Alexander Rondanini, which was created in Greece during or just after Alexander’s life. The second example is the Nahman Alexander, an Egyptian variant from the first half of the Ptolemaic period. The third and final example is the Magnesia Alexander, which was created in Graeco-Roman times in an area of Lydia. All three examples follow the same format in their chapters, starting with a focus on their history and context, followed by a detailed description of their appearance and ending with a discussion about their unique characteristics as well as the problems that arise when studying the sculpture, such as its identification. Finally, the last chapter will focus on the comparisons between these three case-studies, studying both their similarities and differences compared to both the Lysippan originals as well as each other. In the conclusion, the information gathered from the study is used to answer the research questions brought up in the introduction and to close the thesis off.Show less
In comparison with the obelisks in Rome in the classical period, the late antique obelisks have been neglected. Therefore, this thesis will concentrate on the Egyptian obelisks in the Roman world...Show moreIn comparison with the obelisks in Rome in the classical period, the late antique obelisks have been neglected. Therefore, this thesis will concentrate on the Egyptian obelisks in the Roman world in the 3rd and 4th centuries AD in order to create a better image of the obelisks in this period. The main question of this thesis is about the definition of these late antique obelisks: Are they Egyptian or Roman? To answer this question, the symbolical and functional meaning of the late antique obelisks is described in order to say something about the use of obelisks in late antiquity. From the evidence it becomes clear that the Egyptian obelisks in late antiquity still were regarded as special monuments, which had a symbolic meaning. The majority of the late antique obelisks were placed in circuses in which they represented the sun. This practice followed the Roman tradition begun by Augustus in the 1st century BC. The relation with the sun indicates that late antique obelisks still were associated with Egypt and that the traditional meaning of the Egyptian obelisks was not forgotten. As in ancient Egypt, the late antique obelisks had multiple meanings. Eventually, the traditional Egyptian meanings were incorporated into the Roman culture in such a way that it had become impossible to define the late antique obelisks as being Egyptian or Roman. To my opinion, the late antique obelisks are neither Egyptian nor Roman, because both cultures had adopted elements from other cultures. Thus, the late antique obelisks are the result of the contact between Egypt and the Roman world, which had led to the creation of a hybrid style, of which the obelisks are a good example of.Show less
In this thesis I have investigated the reasons for which Romans appropriated foreign material culture, in which conditions and what happened with it after was brought in Rome during the Late...Show moreIn this thesis I have investigated the reasons for which Romans appropriated foreign material culture, in which conditions and what happened with it after was brought in Rome during the Late Republic (second and first century B.C.). Moreover, what kind of material culture was taken and why were these specific objects chosen and not others. My main focus was to understand the appropriation of foreign material culture and how did it influenced the Republic. It is very difficult to define the three cultures, but an attempt had been made in order to explain the concepts and how do they interact with each other. Before studying the influence of the foreign material culture, definitions have been given to the concepts used in this thesis. I have studied the Greek material culture and its impact on the Roman people, on the architecture of temples and on the Roman culture. Using the temple of Apollo Sosianus as an example, the Greek material culture used in its decoration has been studied, but also the Egyptian motifs which occur. It is a significant temple of this period of time due to its many restorations which can be observed in the material preserved. This thesis is exploring the Egyptian material culture brought during the Late Republic. This is often mentioned by the ancient writers, but the results of different excavations did not brought such aspects to life. One can considered that through the cult of the goddess Isis, many Egyptian objects can be found. The similarities and differences between the appropriated Greek and Egyptian material culture have been also discussed. As an example, most of the valuable statues and goods were used to adorn the city and to please the Senate, reassuring in the same time the generals position and privileges, but this was not the case for the Egyptian material culture.Show less
A mother, a wife, a queen, a healer, a magician, a resurrector of the dead, Isis embodied a variety of ideal characteristics for many different people, but to who did she mean what? This thesis...Show moreA mother, a wife, a queen, a healer, a magician, a resurrector of the dead, Isis embodied a variety of ideal characteristics for many different people, but to who did she mean what? This thesis intends to unravel the meanings ascribed to Isis in two distinct geographical locations, in terms of both temple and funerary contexts. Through the means of this investigation I will examine the processes by which Isis was worshipped in the Dakhleh Oasis and in Thebes, during the Roman period in Egypt. Isis was a multifaceted goddess whose worship was adopted by a whole variety of ethnicities throughout the Roman Empire, although she did not necessarily mean the same thing to these people. The thesis intends to gain an understanding of how and why Isis was being worshipped in the Dakhleh Oasis and in Thebes, and if they were in any way related. It will examine temples scenes, Isaic material culture and tomb depictions of Isis in the Dakhleh Oasis. Furthermore, pertaining to Thebes, temples scenes, evidence from the ‘cachette de Karnak’ and the ‘Soter group’ of Roman Egyptian coffins will be examined. The primary aim of this thesis is to establish a regional understanding of Isis in the Dakhleh Oasis, to thus make it possible to compare this data to other regions, one of which will already be undertaken here, Roman Thebes. The themes which underpin this thesis underpin this form of archaeological investigation as a whole, religious connectivity and mutual understanding, alongside evidence for innovation, globalisation and syncretism. This thesis aims to provide a detailed analysis of two specific datasets and demonstrate how comparable these can be, it will provide a regional understanding of an extremely diverse goddess whose relevance has taken off within recent years, and in part whose veneration still remains a mystery.Show less
This study explores the religious developments on the Maltese archipelago from the Neolithic period until the incorporation of the islands into the Byzantine Empire in 535 CE. By chronologically...Show moreThis study explores the religious developments on the Maltese archipelago from the Neolithic period until the incorporation of the islands into the Byzantine Empire in 535 CE. By chronologically analyzing evidence for religious activities on the islands, gleaned from the corpus of published works, in a diachronic perspective and using an explorative approach, the continuity of traditions, sites and possibly beliefs are systematically studied. The result then is a religious biography of the islands, discussing mainly the continuity of phenomena and the development of religious activities. The Maltese archipelago was subjected to many different cultural influences, which is reflected in the development of religious activities. A gradual evolution from the early Neolithic up till the start of the Bronze Age can be witnessed, during which foreign influences can be recognised. After the Bronze Age, which was fundamentally different in religious traditions than its predecessor, the Orientalising influence brought upon by the Phoenicians shaped the religious landscape of the archipelago, laying the fundaments for the succeeding millennium-and-a-half. The rise of several powers in the Mediterranean area (such as the Etruscans, Greeks and the Romans) influenced Malta indirectly. During the Punic and Roman phases the religious activities are affected by Hellenising influences, seen in material culture and the identification of deities. Under Roman Imperial rule the population gradually adopts more Roman religious customs. There is some evidence for some of the Eastern mystery cults of Mithras and Isis, but future research should help to elucidate this. From the fifth century CE onwards there is enough evidence to confirm the presence of a Diaspora Jewish community, as well as infer that a good amount of the population at that time followed the religion of Christianity. The religious developments show how insularity at one hand encouraged local development of traditions, while the high connectivity due to the geographical location of the islands encouraged the introduction of new traditions. As a result a clear line of development can be traced and influencing trends can clearly be distinguished. There are still some areas, such as some of the iconography encountered, which require further exploration to provide a better understanding of the religious developments on the islands.Show less
Over the past decades there have been new theories and methods applied to research in archaeology. This research is an attempt to apply some of these new ideas to the archaeological site, Lepcis...Show moreOver the past decades there have been new theories and methods applied to research in archaeology. This research is an attempt to apply some of these new ideas to the archaeological site, Lepcis Magna. The theory of Space Syntax will be applied to create new data that can be analyzed and interpreted. Recently, there have been multiple studies on identity that have been examined and researched more extensively in relation to the field of archaeology. A combination of space syntax theory and identity studies will be applied in order to have a deeper understanding of past cultural identity of the people of Lepcis Magna between the late first century BC to the Severan period. It has been documented that the inhabitants of Lepcis Magna had a strong Punic background during their incorporation into the Roman Empire. In previous publications on the city, the people are often described as rejecting the Romanization process. New approaches to identity studies on the provincial cities throughout the Roman Empire have attempted to step back from Romanization theory and reexamine the culture and identity of the people. A conscious effort will be made to try and examine the material from an unbiased Romanization point of view. There will also be an evaluation of the space syntax methods to see if it is feasible to approach the study of identity through the examination of space. One will attempt to analyze and interpret areas of high connectivity that will be determined by the analysis applied. Within the areas of high connectivity one will determine if there is a specific identity being projected. It will be from the interpretations that one might discover a collective cultural identity of the people. This research aims to gain a better understanding of past identities of the people of Lepcis Magna through the application of Space Syntax theory.Show less
The origins of conflict and the visibility of conflict in the archaeological and documentary record are the main focus of this research, illustrated by case-studies based on the study of the...Show moreThe origins of conflict and the visibility of conflict in the archaeological and documentary record are the main focus of this research, illustrated by case-studies based on the study of the literature written by the leading experts in the field of conflict archaeology. In the end the thesis should illustrate how conflict archaeology developed, how it has influenced present-day archaeology and which potential it has for the future while providing guidelines, ideas and inspiration for the re-assessment of the current archaeological paradigm regarding conflict archaeology.Show less
During the last 120 years or so, a lot of research has been done on Egyptian paint, pigments and binders. Several scholars have made attempts to reconstruct colour schemes on two-dimensional art...Show moreDuring the last 120 years or so, a lot of research has been done on Egyptian paint, pigments and binders. Several scholars have made attempts to reconstruct colour schemes on two-dimensional art and have succeeded relatively well. However, something similar has not been done on ancient Egyptian three-dimensional art. Therefore, in this thesis the first attempt will be made to reconstruct the colour patterns on a royal statue of Sesostris I. A corpus of other royal statues will be gathered and analysed to detect certain standard ‘rules’, or colour-canon, with can then be applied to other, blank sculptures. Furthermore a review will be made on the relation between two-and threedimensional art, their similarities and differences, as well as the social context of statues and symbolism behind the use of specific colours, which could have affected the original colour layout.Show less
Baelo Claudia is een Romeinse site in het zuiden van Spanje aan de Straat van Gibraltar. De site werd al bewoond voor de Romeinse expansie op het Iberisch schiereiland en kent een Iberische en...Show moreBaelo Claudia is een Romeinse site in het zuiden van Spanje aan de Straat van Gibraltar. De site werd al bewoond voor de Romeinse expansie op het Iberisch schiereiland en kent een Iberische en Phoenicische oorsprong. Het huidige aanzicht van de site wordt gekenmerkt door bebouwing uit de late 1e en 2e eeuw n.Chr. Baelo Claudia heeft een aantal typische Romeinse voorzieningen die passen bij een plaats met de status van een municipium. Het zijn echter de opvallende factoren die deze plaats zo interessant maken voor archeologisch onderzoek. Baelo Claudia lijkt grotendeels afhankelijk te zijn van de seizoensvisserij en heeft een goed bewaard gebleven industrieel terrein waar met name vis werd gezout en garum werd gemaakt. De voorzieningen op de site zelf lijken echter buiten proportioneel in verhouding met het geschatte aantal inwoners, iets wat mogelijk op seizoensarbeid wijst. In deze thesis is op verschillende manieren naar de site gekeken, om Baelo Claudia in een historisch en regionale context te plaatsen. Hiervoor is gebruik gemaakt van verschillende bestaande theorieën omtrent Romanisatie, urbanisatie, migratie en economie. Hierdoor is aan het licht gekomen dat Baelo Claudia een vrij dynamische geschiedenis heeft gekend die zich niet makkelijk door een enkele factor laat verklaren. De site heeft zeer verschillende karakters gehad onder de Romeinse republiek en het Romeinse keizerrijk, waar met name de economische en politieke factoren een grote rol hebben gespeeld. Onder de Romeinse republiek lijkt Baelo Claudia een zeer bescheiden economische rol te hebben gespeeld, waarbij de site waarschijnlijk door zijn geïsoleerde positie in het Spaanse landschap meer Mauretanisch was georiënteerd dan Romeins. Numismatiek onderzoek heeft uitgewezen dat Baelo Claudia nog lang het Phoenicische alfabet op munten gebruikte. Terwijl andere plaatsen in Baetica al waren overgestapt op het Latijnse alfabet. Vissausen werden in de regio van Baelo Claudia al vanaf de 6e eeuw v.Chr. geproduceerd voor een beperkte markt en vervoerd in lokaal aardewerk. Het is bekend dat in de late 1e eeuw v.Chr. Koning Juba II de productie van garum bevorderde, niet alleen als handelswaar maar ook in de vorm van belasting voor Rome. Studies naar amforen die werden gebruikt voor het vervoer van garum wijzen uit dat er in de 1e eeuw n.Chr. een sterke toename is van de Romeinse vraag naar dit luxe artikel. Iets wat in met combinatie van de verwerving van de status van municipium de monumentalisatie en de standaardisatie van het productieproces hebben beïnvloed. De productie moet hebben gezorgd voor een toename van werkgelegenheid, iets wat ook waarneembaar is in Mauretania. Hoe die seizoensarbeid werd georganiseerd is nog steeds onduidelijk, maar de expertise die nodig zijn om tonijn te vangen had niet iedereen voor handen. Een meer regionale samenwerking van vissers en productiecentra zou niet onlogisch zijn, hier is echter maar zeer beperkt bewijs voor. Handboeken over Iberische archeologie zullen Baelo Claudia vaak onderdelen bij sites als Italica en Gades, terwijl dit onrecht doet aan de feitelijke context van Baelo Claudia. De Mauretanische kust en de stad Tingi liggen namelijk veel dichterbij en kunnen ons meer vertellen over de regionale economie en de politieke situatie rond de Straat van Gibraltar. Politieke besluitvorming aan één kust beïnvloedde (in)direct ook de situatie aan de andere kant. En ook op het economische vlak blijken sites aan beide kanten van de Straat van Gibraltar dezelfde set visproducten te produceren voor de Romeinse markt. Waar de archeologie zich vaak primair toespitst op Iberische of Mauretanische archeologie, wordt vaak de feitelijke regionale context uit het oog verloren. De thesis nodigt ook uit tot verder onderzoek naar de relatie tussen de twee kanten van de Straat van Gibraltar.Show less
De late oudheid was een bewogen periode voor Rome. Oude zekerheden stonden op de tocht en werden vervangen door andere. De stad had sterk geleden onder verschillende oorlogen en had haar status als...Show moreDe late oudheid was een bewogen periode voor Rome. Oude zekerheden stonden op de tocht en werden vervangen door andere. De stad had sterk geleden onder verschillende oorlogen en had haar status als hoofdstad verloren aan Constantinopel. Dit alles leidde tot een afname van de bevolking en de financiële draagkracht, met als gevolg een stedelijk landschap dat steeds verder aftakelde omdat de middelen voor onderhoud simpelweg niet meer voorhanden waren. Dit alles betekende ook een klap voor de identiteit van de bewoners van de eeuwige stad. Het leven ging echter door en men had zich te verzoenen met de nieuwe situatie. In deze zoektocht naar de bevestiging van eigenheid en identiteit van de Romeinse bevolking nam het stedelijke culturele erfgoed en de eeuwenoude geschiedenis van de stad een belangrijke rol in. Dit was alom vertegenwoordigd in het stedelijke landschap en de oude ambten en overheidsinstellingen en weerspiegelde een roemrijk verleden. Het uitgangspunt van dit onderzoek was het verkrijgen van inzicht in het gebruik van cultureel erfgoed, geschiedenis en een collectief cultureel geheugen in de vormgeving van een identiteit en zelfbeeld van de laat-antieke bewoners van Rome. Om dit inzicht te verkrijgen, werden uitingen van ‘’Erinnerungskultur’’, herinneringscultuur, onderzocht. Dit betreft een concept dat werd uitgewerkt in het boek: ‘’Das Kulturelle Gedächtnis’’ van Jan Assmann dat betrekking heeft op de rol van geschiedenis en herinnering op de vorming van identiteit. Binnen dit theoretisch kader werden het stedelijke landschap van Rome, de literatuur en de beeldende kunst van deze periode onder de loep genomen in de zoektocht naar uitingen van Erinnerungskultur. Dergelijke uitingen bleken alom vertegenwoordigd in deze categorieën. De omgang met het stedelijke landschap van de stad werd gekenmerkt door een sterke neiging tot restauratie en conservering van de oude situatie. Als afspiegeling van een roemrijk verleden werd het behoud van het stedelijke landschap op een lijn gesteld met het behoud van Rome’s oude luister. Identiteit en het culturele geheugen die deze vormgaf, werden onderhouden en versterkt door de conservering van de mnemotopen, de plaatsen van herinnering, die samen het stedelijke landschap vormden. Ook het gebruik van oude traditionele symbolen van Romeinse identiteit maakte een herleving door gedurende de late oudheid. De literatuur en beeldende kunst uit deze periode droegen op deze wijze sterk bij aan de verbreiding en instandhouding van het idee van het hebben van een gezamenlijk verleden en identiteit. Uit de bevindingen van het onderzoek kan worden opgemaakt dat gedurende de late oudheid de geschiedenis en het culturele erfgoed van Rome een belangrijke en actieve rol speelden in de vorming en bevestiging van identiteit en zelfbeeld van de Romeinen. Door middel van een actieve wisselwerking met dit erfgoed en deze geschiedenis waren ze in staat een identiteit vorm te geven die op verschillende manieren tot uitdrukking kwam. Deze uitingen, zoals de zorg voor het stedelijke landschap, het in stand houden van tradities en het gebruik van een specifiek Romeinse beeldtaal,waren niet enkel uitingen van deze identiteit maar functioneerden ook als vormende krachten achter deze identiteit. Het zijn getuigenissen van het verleden die herinneringen aan dit verleden oproepen en op die manier functioneren als drijvende krachten bij het tot stand komen van een collectieve culturele identiteit en geheugen binnen de Romeinse samenleving.Show less
