The central question of this thesis was whether the occurrence of stoneware on different sites in the Netherlands could be caused by membership of the Hanseatic league. This idea was proposed by...Show moreThe central question of this thesis was whether the occurrence of stoneware on different sites in the Netherlands could be caused by membership of the Hanseatic league. This idea was proposed by Prof. Gaimster in many of his articles. He argues that the stoneware can be seen as a ‘Kulturträger’, an object one, as member of the large multiregional trading confederation called Hansa, could identify with. So according to this theory, towns that were part of the Hanseatic league should receive more stoneware than towns that were not. To test this idea, the model was shaped into executable research using data from 280 different Dutch complexes. To make fair comparisons, the amount of stoneware was noted as a relative percentage, opposed to other contemporary ceramic wares. It was shown that Hanseatic towns indeed gained more stoneware, but their location to Cologne, the source, was also closer. Therefore, the idea of a link between distance from source and occurrence of stoneware was proposed. The percentage of stoneware was compared to the distance from source, Cologne. This resulted in scatterplots per century. The scatterplots showed that the alternative theory indeed worked both for the Hansa and for the non-Hanseatic towns. Nevertheless, the amount of stoneware for Hansa towns is still higher than the amount of stoneware in non-Hansa towns, who were more or less located at the same distance from Cologne. The idea of an identity of Hansa linked to stoneware could thus not completely be rejected. Rather, urbanism seems to be the main driving mechanism behind the spread of stoneware.Show less
The issue of restitution is one that is witnessed throughout the world, at various levels. This thesis explores the type of restitution seen within Romania, and examines the procedures utilised by...Show moreThe issue of restitution is one that is witnessed throughout the world, at various levels. This thesis explores the type of restitution seen within Romania, and examines the procedures utilised by two museums in the return of cultural objects. The focus is placed in the procedures of the Brukenthal National Museum and the Medias Municipal Museum, in Sibiu County. The interesting aspect of these restitutions is that, unlike in many Western museums, restitution cases in Romania are often internal, and carried out between state museums and private individuals. The impact of the Communist regime, and their forceful nationalisation of privately owned cultural objects create a deeper understanding of why current restitution cases occur within the nation. This included their direct and indirect effect on current restitution claims at the two museums. The research was carried out using semi-structured interviews with curators at the museums, along with one former curator at the Medias Municipal Museum, and an interview with the claimant of the Gheorghe Cernea case. These were further supported by written surveys completed by four additional museums: Bran Castle, the National Museum of Transylvanian History, the National Museum of Romanian History, and the Moldovan National Museum Complex. Questions asked included their procedures related to unprovenanced objects, their procedures related to restitution cases, and their personal opinions on the ethics of the return of objects. The findings demonstrate three main points: acquisition procedures from the communist period, and unknown provenance of objects complicate current restitution claims; the Romanian government involved itself in museum exhibitions in an attempt to control the cultural identity made public, and thus by extension influenced the types of objects entered in the collection; and the restitution procedures of the participating museums are judicial in nature. Thus the Communist regime influenced current restitution claims in two ways: indirectly, and directly. The creation of law no. 182/2000 in response to these crimes committed by the government, to aid in the restitution of cultural objects further demonstrates the indirect influence of the former regime. An imbalance remains, favouring the return of immovable cultural heritage, in both laws and organisations helping individuals file claims. Whilst the research is limited in this thesis, it is hoped that it stimulates future studies on the subject, to bring the issue to a greater audience and reduce the taboo around cultural object restitution that remains in Romanian heritage institutions.Show less
Figurines are some of the most commonly found artefacts in Neolithic sites across the Near East. These objects have often stimulated colourful interpretations, focussing primarily on stylistic...Show moreFigurines are some of the most commonly found artefacts in Neolithic sites across the Near East. These objects have often stimulated colourful interpretations, focussing primarily on stylistic elements of the anthropomorphic subjects. Such elements, like their perceived femaleness accompanied by voluptuousness, have historically been deemed as directly linked to concerns with fertility and pregnancy, which led to the assumption of the figurines being ritual objects and representations of deities, often labelled as ‘mother- goddesses’. These interpretations essentially generalize the entirety of the figurine assemblages of the Neolithic world, and erase the possibilities of in-depth analysis of these objects. This thesis takes on a different approach, with the belief that a comprehensive analysis that aims to understand these objects should first of all focus on the assemblage of a single context (namely a single site in a given chronological frame), covering the full ‘life-span’ of the figurines within such spatial, chronological, and cultural boundaries, starting from the context of deposition, the process of manufacture and the possible uses. Stylistic observations should only be considered in association to these aspects just mentioned, in the case of possible patterns highlighting the meaning and uses of these objects. A comparative analysis of two or more assemblages could be introduced at a second stage of analysis, within pertinent geographical and chronological boundaries, in order to highlight possible differences and similarities. This approach is what was applied for the research of the figurines of two Neolithic sites of the Lake District in Western Anatolia: Hacilar and Höyücek. These sites, broadly dated to the Late Neolithic period (ca. 6,400 – 6,000 BC), present a significant corpus of figurines, which amount to 72 for Hacilar, and 84 for Höyücek, with the aims of investigating their contexts of deposition and their manufacturing processes in order to highlight possible meaning and uses that were associated to these emblematic objects withi the individual sites and in a broader regional context. The structure of this research will start with an introductory chapter on the Neolithic in the Lake District (Chapter 1), followed by a theoretical chapter that will discuss the history of figurine studies, and will frame the theoretical approach preferred for this research. The datasets of Hacilar and Höyücek will be discussed in Chapter 3 and Chapter 4, which will then be compared in their results in Chapter 5. Finally, the conclusions of this research will be presented in Chapter 6. This research has shown that the figurines of Hacilar and Höyücek had highly dynamic meanings and uses, even within the same sites, which on the one hand shows how inherently flawed the past research has been, and on the other it opens up new avenues of research around aspects like the manufacturing process, which have barely been actively studied in figurines.Show less
This dissertation focuses on a 12th -13th middle-late Byzantine pottery assemblage from Alexander’s Hill at Sagalassos, SW Turkey. Excavations on Alexander’s Hill offered valuable information...Show moreThis dissertation focuses on a 12th -13th middle-late Byzantine pottery assemblage from Alexander’s Hill at Sagalassos, SW Turkey. Excavations on Alexander’s Hill offered valuable information concerning the last occupation phase of the site before the definite prevalence of the Seljuk Turks. Picking up the torch from past research, this dissertation continues with the in-depth study of the assemblage, which is consisted of sherds coming from coarse wares and glazed tableware. The aims of this research are first to investigate the provenance of the material comparing them to local clay sources of Sagalassos territory and specifically for the glazed samples, to explore whether or not there is a connection to the medieval glazed pottery workshops of Cyprus. The methodology followed for the completion of the project included a series of successive analyses, macroscopic, petrographic and chemical analysis (ICP-OES). The results and their comparison to local and Cypriot (glazed tableware) clay sources, suggested that the assemblage should be considered an import to the site. Furthermore, available data from Cypriot sites did not show any connections as well. Future research on other possibly non-yet discovered clay sources from Sagalassos’ territory and more data coming from more glazed tableware production centres in Cyprus would further develop research on the subject. This project contributes to the ongoing research in Sagalassos by shedding more light on this transitional time-period. In addition, the site can act as a proxy for the investigation of settlement development in medieval Anatolia.Show less
This research attempted to answer the following question: ‘What was the function of the Mesolithic small (<88,5mm) barbed bone points from the North Sea and what does this contribute to our...Show moreThis research attempted to answer the following question: ‘What was the function of the Mesolithic small (<88,5mm) barbed bone points from the North Sea and what does this contribute to our understanding of subsistence strategies of the inhabitants of the North Sea Basin?’ In order to answer this question an assemblage of 28 archaeological small barbed bone points – that originate from the North Sea in front of the Dutch coast of Zuid-Holland – was studied. This thesis started in chapter 1 with an outline of research that was already conducted on these points by Verhart (1986; 1988; 2000) Tsiopelas (2010) and Spithoven (2016). Thereafter, it was explained in chapter 2 how the research was conducted: literature research, experimental archaeology and use wear analysis. In chapter 3, it was outlined how these points fit within the archaeological context: Mesolithic Doggerland. The shooting experiment conducted for this research was discussed in chapter 4 and in chapter 5 the results of this experiment were compared with the results of the use wear analysis. The use wear analysis was conducted on 28 archaeological points in comparison to six experimental points from the shooting experiment. In chapter 6, the social factors which could have influenced the life history of the points were discussed, as well as their function and the representativeness of this research. In the concluding chapter of this thesis (7) the research question was answered followed by a review of the used methods and suggestions for future research. The function of the small barbed bone points from Mesolithic Doggerland could be inferred from the use wear analysis. The points are all (heavily) curated weapon tips. They have developed a high degree of wear and about half of the studied points have remains of reworked barbs present as well. The research area is only a small area of Mesolithic Doggerland which already yielded about 800 of these small barbed bone/antler points. The curation of these points, the function as weapon tips and the overrepresentation within the archaeological record of Mesolithic Doggerland suggests that these weapons were used very frequently. Therefore, it can be inferred that hunting was one an important subsistence strategy. The most used hunting weapon could have been the bow and arrow because the small points are interpreted as arrowheads. However, the use wear analysis could not confirm that the points were specifically used as arrowheads.Show less
North Central Nicaragua has long been on the fringes of the researched world and this region is still largely underrepresented in discourses on Central American archaeology. These have...Show moreNorth Central Nicaragua has long been on the fringes of the researched world and this region is still largely underrepresented in discourses on Central American archaeology. These have traditionally put the emphasis on defining ethnic territories and boundaries across the isthmus, often obscuring local diversity. The existing knowledge on the pre-Conquest societies of North Central Nicaragua rely heavily on linguistic sources and biased colonial accounts. An archaeological effort to understand the pre-Conquest past of the region would not only contribute to the writing of local history, but also contribute to archaeological discussions on an interregional scale. Most of the archaeological data available for the Matagalpa and Jinotega departments are found in unpublished survey reports. These have been largely disregarded due to the non-systematic survey strategies used and lacks in a chronological understanding of the archaeological sites and finds. This thesis adopts a visual GIS approach that makes use of these data sources, in order to combine existing survey data and explore the pre-Conquest past in the Matagalpa and Jinotega departments of North Central Nicaragua. A flexible framework is used to analyse the survey data, accounting for its limitations and considering the particularly variable environmental zones that characterise this region. Considering different models of zonal complementarity and interregional exchange, the visual analysis seeks to gain an understanding of pre-Conquest interzonal interaction and exchange in the research area. The analysis reveals different patterns of interzonal interaction. Distributions of movable finds penetrate different environmental zones, indicating exchange between groups occupying different environmental zones. Finds linked to interregional networks are found in differing degrees of diversity in different parts of the research area, suggesting differing degrees of centrality and access to goods from outside regions. The available data supports interregional down-the-line trade models taking place in an environmentally and most likely also socially and culturally heterogeneous landscape. This thesis contributes to closing a knowledge gap on the pre-Conquest past both on a local and interregional scale. Combining existing archaeological data helps archaeology to participate more effectively in current discourses about pre-Conquest North Central Nicaragua. Interregionally, this thesis contributes by presenting a comprehensive data exploration in an underrepresented region through an environmental and geographical perspective. This perspective helps seeking new avenues in Central American archaeology that allow the consideration of local diversity without losing sight on interregional dynamics.Show less
Early medieval garnet inlaid objects are subject to a lot of studies, predominantly those of economies and exchange. The topic of social significance, especially in relation to gender, is however...Show moreEarly medieval garnet inlaid objects are subject to a lot of studies, predominantly those of economies and exchange. The topic of social significance, especially in relation to gender, is however barely touched upon. This research studies the gender representation of garnet inlaid objects in Frankish-Merovingian Europe during the fifth and sixth centuries. In total 549 garnet inlaid objects were assembled from over 105 sites within the research area consisting of the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the German Provinces Nordrhein-Westfalen and Rhineland-Pfalz. The types of objects found within the research area mainly consist of embellishments, such as brooches, jewellery and belt fittings. This study also comprised of rarer objects such as weapons or saddle mounts. The results of the dataset are critically assessed , looking mostly at the gender theories established during the last 30 years. Also, the dataset is incorporated within a larger research frame by including the examples of Childeric and Sutton Hoo. As a result it could be established that garnet inlaid objects are predominantly found within female graves. The amount of garnet used upon an object and the types of objects found change over time, but they remain present in female contexts throughout the period. The objects adorned with garnets that are incorporated within the male grave are usually only present within sixth century contexts. However at the end of the fifth century they are first found related to a very rich male context (e.g. Childeric). An area where garnets are predominantly present in the research area could not be discovered but some regional differences were observed. The rapid decline within garnet adorned objects found within the research area, combined with the Anglo Saxon Sotton Hoo burial is suggesting a geographical shift in the use of garnet inlaid objects. A lot remains to be researched in new studies. The sexing of graves where the objects are found is, for instance, a worthwhile research focus. Also a thorough examination of the total grave assemblages could reveal new and exciting data.Show less
The use of computer applications has irrevocably changed the way archaeology is done, as well as redefined what it means to do “good” archaeology. This has brought about numerous methodological...Show moreThe use of computer applications has irrevocably changed the way archaeology is done, as well as redefined what it means to do “good” archaeology. This has brought about numerous methodological questions concerning the use of data, data sources, and the software used in analyses. This thesis seeks to explore some of these issues, including the re-use or borrowing of data, open source data, and the use of FOSS programs within archaeology. In order to answer these questions, the spatial relationship between the terraces in the Swiss Alps was investigated. The study area is located in the area surrounding (and including) Ramosch in the Lower Engadine, Switzerland. These terraces have been in use since at least the Middle Ages, and could potentially date to the Bronze Age. The terraces were documented based on remote sensing data and digitized in QGIS 1.8. The spatial relationship of the terraces is primarily determined by the viability of the land for agriculture (soil composition and sunlight), followed by the distance from modern settlements, modern features in the landscape (i.e. buildings, roads, and waterways), and access to water. This research shows that it is possible to do archaeological research by recycling data from third-party sources. All of the data used in this project was obtained for no cost. The spatial resolution of the general-purpose data and recycled data was more than adequate and the lack of metadata was not a major obstacle. The largest hindrance with using data collected by others for an alternative purpose is finding the right data and gaining access to this data. The processes of understanding the data without metadata can be completed by comparing the unknown datasets to those that are known. The use of FOSS programs is extremely beneficial. The low cost, easy accessibility and large online communities have helped the FOSS movement to thrive. The ability to share information unhindered by licensing and terms and conditions promotes the continuation of accessible research. However, FOSS is not inherently better than proprietary software. The primary requirement for the use of a program should be its ability to perform all the required functions necessary for good research. Show less
In this research, I wanted to personally test whether Rots (2010) extensive experimental research could aid my interpretation of hafting traces on a sample of artefacts from several Vlaardingen...Show moreIn this research, I wanted to personally test whether Rots (2010) extensive experimental research could aid my interpretation of hafting traces on a sample of artefacts from several Vlaardingen Group sites (Leidschendam, Voorschoten and Vlaardingen) (3400-2900 BC). This sample is particularly interesting to study, because it allows me to test the assumption that these small, flint scrapers must have been used hafted, because of their small size. Whilst testing a methodology against a seemingly common-sense assumption, the wider implications of hafting evidence for the interpretation of settlement function have not been forgotten. Unfortunately, certain processes, common in the life of an archaeological scraper, such as post depositional surface modification (PDSM) and resharpening episodes, have obscured the patterns of microwear traces which were more obvious on Rots’ experimental tools. My own experiments with replica hafted tools did, to some extent, elucidate the kinds of hafting traces that might occur on such tools, but for the scrapers from Leidschendam, PDSM often rendered the scrapers uninterpretable. Nevertheless, traces which could be interpreted as hafting traces were observed on some of these small scrapers! Microwear polishes suggesting at least two different haft materials, as well as some hafting-related edge damage and even spots of potential adhesive residues were recorded. This suggested at least 14 out 46 may have been hafted. For a few scrapers, the pattern of microwear traces was even sufficient to suggest a more detailed interpretation of the hafting arrangement. Furthermore, a couple of potential, hafting-related patterns emerged with differences in the incidence of hafting on different sites, and hafted scrapers having a subtly different morphology to non-hafted scrapers. The implications of these insights are then explored in the relation to the debate about the permanency of settlement at certain Vlaardingen sites. Although further hafting wear analysis of material from other Vlaardingen sites would also be useful in this discussion. Ultimately, the methodology proposed by Rots is found to be less applicable to the material studied than I had hoped and extra challenges for interpreting heavily retouched, archaeological tools are outlined.Show less
The aim of this research is to investigate the degree of differentiation among Chalcolithic buildings. In this research project, several key sites of the Chalcolithic are under investigation,...Show moreThe aim of this research is to investigate the degree of differentiation among Chalcolithic buildings. In this research project, several key sites of the Chalcolithic are under investigation, including Lemba-Lakkous, Kissonerga-Mylouthkia, Kissonerga-Mosphilia and Chlorakas-Palloures. The data provided by the excavations at Chlorakas-Palloures have not been incorporated in any research until now. Although the Chalcolithic period has been extensively studied and the excavated sites have been recorded in great detail, little attention is given to the architectural features, and only the “special” structures are examined in great detail. It has been argued that Chalcolithic houses, their spatial configuration and internal activity zones are highly standardized. Also, a marked differentiation can be recognized in both house sizes and building elaboration. However, the Chalcolithic house is always presented as a homogenous structure, with little regard for differentiation or diversity in these structures. This model relies heavily on several parade ground examples, such as the ‘Red Building’ and the Kissonerga ‘Building Model’ and buildings that do not fit in this model, have not been considered. The emergence of building differentiation has first been identified during the Middle Chalcolithic, and it has been argued that this variability resulted from ritual control. For the Late Chalcolithic, the evidence for building differentiation is illustrated by the ‘Pithos House’ of which it has been argued that the differentiation is a result of socio-economic organisation. Interestingly, these buildings are all conform to the internal arrangements of the standard Chalcolithic house. Thus, for both periods building differentiation has been explained to be associated to social competition. In order to scrutinize this hypothesis, the concept of house societies has been applied, in which mainly has been focussed on the buildings and the features therein. Whether settlements are hierarchically arranged can be inferred though house size, building elaboration, differences in food items, access to craft-produced items and burial practices. Therefore, it should be investigated whether we can recognize a difference in activities, building size and building elaboration, in order to identify these high-status buildings. A large dataset has been created combining all the architectural data of the four sites, in order to systematically study, compare and analyse them together. It has been concluded that a high degree of variability is present among Chalcolithic buildings, which can be both recognized on the site level and between sites. This differentiation is due to differences in function, but several high-status buildings have been identified also. Buildings in which a difference in the internal layout could be recognized did not function as houses but served as storage facilities and communal food processing and preparation buildings. Both curvilinear and rectilinear buildings served as such. Buildings which differed in terms of building size, building elaboration were conform to the standard spatial configuration and served primarily as houses. In these buildings evidence for access to different food items and craft-produced items has been encountered. Therefore, it can be argued that these buildings were high-status buildings.Show less
