A negotiation between two parties can result in different outcomes, leading to either integrative or distributive outcomes. What’s more, individual aspects such as emotions and personality...Show moreA negotiation between two parties can result in different outcomes, leading to either integrative or distributive outcomes. What’s more, individual aspects such as emotions and personality characteristics can determine one’s negotiation style. In this study, dyads were divided into three conditions and took part in a negotiation task to measure whether the timing of introducing new issues influence the integrative outcomes. Emotions as measured by the PANAS-SF, and personality characteristics as measured by the Big Five Personality Trait Test tested the influence of these variables on the individual outcome. No effect of the order on the integrative outcome was found, and emotions and personality characteristics did not seem to influence the individual outcome. Future research could explore the role of being acquainted with the other negotiator and time pressure on the negotiation outcomes.Show less
Gender differences in negotiation behaviours have been widely studied, yet results on the impact of gender on negotiation outcomes remain inconclusive. This thesis investigates the effects of...Show moreGender differences in negotiation behaviours have been widely studied, yet results on the impact of gender on negotiation outcomes remain inconclusive. This thesis investigates the effects of social motives, supervisor gender, and negotiation context on the negotiation behaviours of female negotiators. We propose that alignment among these factors enhances negotiation performance and amplifies gender-stereotypical behaviours. Contrary to expectations, the gender of the experimenter did not significantly influence negotiation behaviours directly; instead, it moderated the effects of social motives on concession patterns. Our findings also reveal that when supervised by a female experimenter under pro-social motives, women place a greater emphasis on maintaining relationships compared to when under male supervision. Additionally, women were less likely to actively engage in negotiations when supervised by men compared to women. These results indicate that gender stereotypes and social expectations significantly influence negotiation behaviours, and contextual factors critically mediate these effects.Show less
This study (N = 178) investigates the optimal timing for negotiators to expand the pie by introducing optional issues to the negotiation. I conducted two-person role-play negotiations and...Show moreThis study (N = 178) investigates the optimal timing for negotiators to expand the pie by introducing optional issues to the negotiation. I conducted two-person role-play negotiations and differentiated between adding issues at the beginning, middle and end by manipulating the order on the pay-off schedules. Specifically, I tested if introducing optional issues at the beginning results in a higher collective benefit than introducing them at the end, and if introducing optional issues in the middle leads to the highest collective benefit. Despite the absence of compelling evidence supporting an effect of issue order on collective benefit, the observed patterns in collective benefit suggests the need for further exploration. Additionally, I explore if relationships and first impressions are improved when pairs introduce optional issues in the middle.Show less
Negotiations are important processes that can happen anywhere from an office to a private setting. Previous research has already stated that information exchange can help to come to a so called...Show moreNegotiations are important processes that can happen anywhere from an office to a private setting. Previous research has already stated that information exchange can help to come to a so called integrative agreement (win-win situation), which usually leads to better outcomes for both parties. However, there is still little known about the strategies to seek information. One way of seeking information is through asking either open or closed questions. Therefore, the current research investigates whether there is a difference between open and closed questions on negotiation outcomes. The prediction was that open questions generate a higher integrative agreement, higher subjective value and higher trust in the other party than closed questions. The experiment consisted of 48 duos who negotiated about organising a teamday. Both participants took on a role which was connected to a certain point distribution system. It has been found that, contradicting the predictions, there were no significant differences found between closed and open questions on integrative agreement, higher subjective value and higher level of trust. Certain experimental factors like the roleplay, time pressure and a participation lottery, could have influenced the results. Therefore, more research is needed on this topic to check if the results can be confirmed or rejected.Show less
Gender differences in negotiation behaviours and outcomes have been widely studied, reflecting societal stereotypes. These stereotypes associate men with assertiveness and women with agreeableness....Show moreGender differences in negotiation behaviours and outcomes have been widely studied, reflecting societal stereotypes. These stereotypes associate men with assertiveness and women with agreeableness. Such gendered socialization has led to distinct negotiation styles, often influenced by contextual factors like negotiation roles and subjects. Additionally, balancing negotiators’ gender influences behaviours; women tend to be more prosocial when negotiating with women. Research shows that experimenter gender can activate stereotypes in this same way, impacting negotiation behaviours. However, there is limited understanding of how experimenter gender affects female negotiation behaviour. This study examines the influence of experimenter gender and social motive on female participants' first offers and concession size. Employing a 2 x 2 design, female participants (N = 97) engaged in an online, chat-based negotiation, had a pro-social or individual motive, and a female or male experimenter. While no significant effects emerged for the independent variables on first offer, social motive significantly influenced concession size on the first negotiation issue. A significant interaction effect of social motive and experimenter gender was found for the first negotiation issue as well. These findings suggest that experimenter gender alone does not affect female negotiation behaviour, but social motives and their interaction with experimenter gender does. Contextual and demographical factors need to be considered when researching the interplay between experimenter gender and female negotiation behaviour. The results of this study can be used by professionals, as well as negotiation trainers and women in general to increase awareness and decrease the effect of gender stereotypes on female negotiation behaviour.Show less
Privacy is a hotly debated topic. Many claim that their privacy is of great importance to them, yet at the same time people are prone to self-disclose a lot of information online. This privacy...Show morePrivacy is a hotly debated topic. Many claim that their privacy is of great importance to them, yet at the same time people are prone to self-disclose a lot of information online. This privacy paradox is at the centre of a lot of scholarly debate. By expanding on the horizontal/vertical privacy model by Quinn and Epstein (2018, July), this thesis aims to better understand the privacy paradox. Horizontal privacy pertains to sharing information in the peer domain. Vertical privacy pertains to sharing information in the government/corporation domain. Using a fictious social networking site, self-report measures were taken that predict behaviour. 165 (71 male; 94 female) Participants were led to believe that their data was breached and leaked either in the horizontal or vertical domain or not at all. It was hypothesized that data breaches, and the horizontal data breach in particular, would create negative experiences that would lead to discontinuing the fictitious SNS. The results of this thesis remain inconclusive. No significant differences between the horizontal, vertical data breaches and control condition were found. Although the data do not support the research hypotheses, the present study does give some insights in how to improve future research. What is more, it makes a case for the horizontal/vertical privacy model, since it nevertheless can be of use to both scholars and society.Show less
This study investigated the concept ‘expanding the pie’ in unequal power dyads by the option to involve optional topics to the negotiation in order to reach an integrative and optimal agreement....Show moreThis study investigated the concept ‘expanding the pie’ in unequal power dyads by the option to involve optional topics to the negotiation in order to reach an integrative and optimal agreement. Predicted was that low-power negotiators initiated more optional topics compared to high-power negotiators and that this would lead to a higher negotiation quality and a higher joint outcome. Furthermore, predicted was that high-power negotiators would only initiate the optional topics that were beneficial for them, and that low-power negotiators would initiate all the optional topics. The participants (N=88 dyads) were introduced to a newly developed dyad face-to-face negotiation task, where participants had the option to initiate optional topics beside the mandatory topics, with the goal to expand the pie and reach an optimal outcome. Results show that, against expectations, high-power and low-power negotiators do not differ in the frequency they initiate the optional topics, and power does not have an effect on negotiation quality and joint outcome. Furthermore, not only high-power negotiators initiate optional topics that are beneficial for them, but low-power negotiators do this as well. Suggested is that negotiators are influenced by the way the task is framed and develop an individualistic motivation which stands in the way of creating an integrative and optimal agreement. The effects of unequal power, implications and limitations of the study and future research are further discussed.Show less
This study examined how social motives and power-differences influence the outcome of a dyadic negotiation task. It was predicted that both social motives and power-differences influence the extent...Show moreThis study examined how social motives and power-differences influence the outcome of a dyadic negotiation task. It was predicted that both social motives and power-differences influence the extent to which extra value is added to the negotiation (i.e. ‘expanding the pie’). In the “Sandwich Heaven” negotiation task (N = 192), participants negotiated according to the “Mandatory-Optional Issue Paradigm”. Participants had to agree on the five mandatory issues and had the option to include three additional issues. Dyads were randomly assigned to one of four conditions of the two (power: equal versus difference) x 2 (social motive: prosocial versus proself) design. The manipulations of power and social motive were operationalized through the instructions. Results showed that both social motive, and the combination of social motive and power, did not have a significant effect on the negotiated outcome. Prosocial oriented people were found to add more additional issues to the deal than proself oriented people.Show less
How are effects of social motive affected by asymmetric power dispersion in a three-person negotiation, and does this effect differ between groups of friends and strangers? It was hypothesized that...Show moreHow are effects of social motive affected by asymmetric power dispersion in a three-person negotiation, and does this effect differ between groups of friends and strangers? It was hypothesized that pro-social groups would reach the highest joint outcomes with a leader operating under an unanimity decision rule, followed by groups with a dictator, followed groups without a boss. A pro-self group with a dictator was thought to reach the lowest joint outcomes, followed by one with a leader, followed one without a boss. It was furthermore hypothesized that the effects of a pro-self motive would be stronger in a group of strangers, and the effects of a pro-social motive were thought to be stronger in a group of friends. Results of the three-person Aloha Beach Club negotiation game supported only the hypotheses about the amplifying effect of power differences on social motive.Show less
Group negotiations are an important aspect of social interactions and can be strongly influenced by familiarity, social motive and power differences between involved parties. A pro-social motive...Show moreGroup negotiations are an important aspect of social interactions and can be strongly influenced by familiarity, social motive and power differences between involved parties. A pro-social motive was associated with more concern for the needs of others. Powerful individuals in the asymmetric power conditions were expected to have more influence on the outcome. Friends were expected to have more integrative results compared with strangers. Additionally, groups that trusted each other were expected to reach higher joint outcomes by openly sharing information. The results of a three-person online negotiation exercise supported a crucial role of trust. Groups that trust each other reached higher joint outcomes for all experimental conditions. The integrative potential of the outcome was not influenced by the groups consisting of friends or strangers. Pro-social motive groups reached more integrative outcome for groups of friends and stranger alike. Furthermore, participants that were given more power had more influence on the outcome of the negotiation. Contradicting our expectations, strangers showed more concern for a fair and considerate negotiation process.Show less
This study examines the effect of brand morality and brand competence on explicit and implicit brand attitude and whether identification mediates this effect. The study has a two (morality: low x...Show moreThis study examines the effect of brand morality and brand competence on explicit and implicit brand attitude and whether identification mediates this effect. The study has a two (morality: low x high) by two (competence: low x high) factorial experimental between-subjects design. The experiment was conducted with the Qualtrics Domain of Leiden University. The results of four ANOVA’s showed that both brand morality and brand competence affect consumers’ explicit and implicit brand attitude, with a larger effect of brand morality. The first regression analysis showed that identification influences the effect of both brand morality and brand competence on explicit brand attitude, with a slightly larger effect of brand morality. The second regression analysis showed that identification influences the effect of brand competence on implicit brand attitude but does not influence the effect of brand morality on implicit brand attitude. Theoretical and practical implications, limitations, and suggestions for further research are discussed.Show less
Previous studies on online reviews have mostly concentrated on how the evaluations of products or services are affected by negative commentary. More recent studies have expanded the field of online...Show morePrevious studies on online reviews have mostly concentrated on how the evaluations of products or services are affected by negative commentary. More recent studies have expanded the field of online reviews to investigate readers’ appraisals of the reviewer themselves based on their online comments. Most of this work focused on the effects of anger and showed that anger expressions have detrimental effects on the perceptions of the reviewer and on the informative value of the review. The current research examined whether this is always the case. Building on past findings, this study set out to investigate the effect of managerial responses to angry online reviews on appraisals of the service and the reviewer. This study created three differential managerial response conditions (apologetic, humorous, no response) to an angry online review of an imaginary hotel, and measured review informativeness, reader attitude, appropriateness of emotion, rationality of the reviewer, and the likelihood of the reader to book the reviewed hotel. Data were gathered with an online questionnaire (N = 121). Results found that apologetic responses heightened both reviewer informativeness and rationality appraisals and improved readers’ attitudes towards the service. This study thus concludes that the presence and type of managerial response to angry online reviews do have an effect on how the reviewed product or service is evaluated, and how both the review and the reviewer are perceived.Show less
In an online experiment we investigated the relationship between listening style on the quality of the relationship between two conversation partners. Additionally we looked at the mediating effect...Show moreIn an online experiment we investigated the relationship between listening style on the quality of the relationship between two conversation partners. Additionally we looked at the mediating effect of empathy in this relationship. One participant and one confederate had a conversation about six statements on a vegan lifestyle. The confederate used one of three different listening styles namely, active listening, neutral listening or argumentative listening, to interact with the participant who was arguing his or her point of view. The results showed that active and argumentative listening had a positive effect on the quality of the relationship between the conversation partners. This positive effect was mediated by perceived empathy. These two reactive listening styles seem to reflect empathy, and this in turn makes the other like you more as a person and conversation partner. Neutral listening didn’t seem to be preferred when being listened to. If someone is telling you a story or argues their point of view, the speaking party will really appreciate it if you are consciously listening to them, and also show this in reactions and behaviour.Show less
An understanding of how brand traits influence brand evaluation and positive eWOM intentions is important for companies because it could help them to optimize their brand for success. Based on...Show moreAn understanding of how brand traits influence brand evaluation and positive eWOM intentions is important for companies because it could help them to optimize their brand for success. Based on social perception literature, this study (N = 179) investigated the effect of perceived brand morality, sociability and competence on brand evaluation and positive eWOM intentions. The study also looks at the role of product type. This was investigated using an online survey on six existing brands. The results indicated that morality, sociability and competence together predict a positive brand evaluation. Yet, there is no clear individual contribution from any one of these three brand traits. Additionally, brand competence was the only trait that predicted positive eWOM intentions concerning the brands. No effect for product type was found. The results did not clearly support the hypotheses, but suggest that morality in brand perception is not as important as in social perception. Further research is needed to get a better understanding of the influence of brand traits on consumer behavior.Show less
Knowing how perceived brand traits influence consumers could give companies essential insights to improve their strategies and campaigns. Previous research has shown perceived brand personality...Show moreKnowing how perceived brand traits influence consumers could give companies essential insights to improve their strategies and campaigns. Previous research has shown perceived brand personality traits to affect consumer behavior. This study aims to determine the relation between perceived competence and perceived morality on consumer purchase intention and brand evaluation, including a possible moderating role of perceived brand gender cues. An online survey was conducted with 178 participants. The results showed that morality predicted consumer purchase intention as well as brand evaluation. Competence only positively influenced consumer purchase intention. Surprisingly, a contradicting negative interaction was found between competence and morality on consumer purchase intention. Furthermore, competent perceived companies have more purchase intention when they are perceived as masculine. The findings of this study confirm the importance of perceived brand traits and introduce perceived morality, consumer brand evaluation and perceived brand gender cues as new valuable variables in these relations.Show less
Creating value is a fundamental skill during dyadic negotiations. Negotiators who ask themselves the question: ‘how can we expand the pie instead of sharing it’ reach better agreements. This...Show moreCreating value is a fundamental skill during dyadic negotiations. Negotiators who ask themselves the question: ‘how can we expand the pie instead of sharing it’ reach better agreements. This research was affected by the measurements resulting of COVID-19 and therefore partly executed the way it was intended. The experiment (N = 74) tested value creation amongst negotiations with unequal power distribution. Negotiators participated in a role playing game where they had to negotiate about four issues and had the possibility to add 3 more optional issues. The challenge to expand the pie for both players was found in the mandatory-optional paradigm, a payoff schedule specially designed for this research. Participants were divided into two benefit conditions (powerful could add more value or the powerless could add more value). Results were analyzed out of our two control conditions and showed that the powerful players reached higher outcomes than the powerless players and thus seemed better in adding more value. This however, was not found. The difference in adding more value to the agreement between the two players was not significant. Reasons, limitations and implications are discussed and suggestions for further research are proposed.Show less
