During the first centuries BCE and CE, China became one of the larger power-blocks within the ancient early Silk Roads trade network. Extensive trade connections began to form between the Indian...Show moreDuring the first centuries BCE and CE, China became one of the larger power-blocks within the ancient early Silk Roads trade network. Extensive trade connections began to form between the Indian Subcontinent and China, allowing for the creation of trade routes passing through the mountains. The physical manifestation of the travellers along these routes is left behind in the shape of rock art, with anthropomorphic Buddhist, zoomorphic, and inscriptional carvings. The focus of this research is placed on the study of the zoomorphic rock art assemblage from the Karakoram mountain range. An international team composed of archaeologists from the Pakistani Department of Archaeology of Gilgit and the German Heidelberg Academy cooperated to document the rock art assemblage present at significant conglomerations of rock art locations, known as field stations, in the Karakoram mountain range, from 1983 until 2013. This documentation, consisting of eleven catalogues known as the Materialien zur Archäologie der Nordgebiete Pakistans, is the basis for the current research. Three aspects of zoomorphic rock art are discussed in this thesis. Firstly, the identification of the faunal depictions. Through the correlation of morphological characteristics ofextant fauna and zoomorphic carvings, it becomes possible to identify the depicted fauna. Three main Classes have been identified, Reptilia, Aves, and Mammalia. The majority of the carvings, over 95 percent, consists of Mammalia carvings, in particular Bovidae. Secondly, a spatial distribution of the location and composition of rock art locations was created to study potential clustering. The presence of clustering appeared to enrich the variety of depicted zoomorphic motifs. Furthermore, a dichotomy could be seen between field stations which were present alongside the Indus River, showing a larger diversity than locations more inland. Thirdly, the dataset was interpreted, by carrying out a more detailed analysis into the riverside-inland dichotomy and correlating the presence of the zoomorphic motifs with the Buddhist motifs, strengthening past hypotheses and introducing new areas of interest for future archaeological research. The results of this thesis are laying the foundations for research into the available zoomorphic motifs, and the broader rock art assemblage of the Karakoram mountain range.Show less
Irrigation technologies and more particularly qanat-type falaj irrigation and its first emergence, are one of the key topics of Arabian prehistory. Magee suggests that falaj systems and the...Show moreIrrigation technologies and more particularly qanat-type falaj irrigation and its first emergence, are one of the key topics of Arabian prehistory. Magee suggests that falaj systems and the domestication of the camel considerably facilitated the Iron Age II population boom in Southeastern Arabia (Magee 2004). Here, four irrigation systems are systematically discussed along three research questions addressing their location, characteristics and how they were dated. The four sites are located in regions, were hot desert climate prevails and groundwater was easily available. The communities conducted qanat-type falaj irrigation (Hili, Al Madam), runoff irrigation (Masafi) and potentially manual irrigation (Wadi Fizh). Modification traces (Al Madam, Masafi) indicate a continuous use of the structures and sluices (Hili, Masafi) point towards water management activities. All systems were dated based on Iron Age II pottery; the system at Al Madam was furtherly dated by radiocarbon dates and the system at Masafi by dates from microcharcoal analysis. The absolute dates from Al Madam and Masafi were strong indicators for a dating to the Iron Age II period, showing that falaj and runoff irrigation were conducted at the time. Reconstructing past water tables and studying construction techniques will be suitable approaches, to further research how Iron Age II communities were irrigating.Show less
The aim of this research is to investigate the degree of differentiation among Chalcolithic buildings. In this research project, several key sites of the Chalcolithic are under investigation,...Show moreThe aim of this research is to investigate the degree of differentiation among Chalcolithic buildings. In this research project, several key sites of the Chalcolithic are under investigation, including Lemba-Lakkous, Kissonerga-Mylouthkia, Kissonerga-Mosphilia and Chlorakas-Palloures. The data provided by the excavations at Chlorakas-Palloures have not been incorporated in any research until now. Although the Chalcolithic period has been extensively studied and the excavated sites have been recorded in great detail, little attention is given to the architectural features, and only the “special” structures are examined in great detail. It has been argued that Chalcolithic houses, their spatial configuration and internal activity zones are highly standardized. Also, a marked differentiation can be recognized in both house sizes and building elaboration. However, the Chalcolithic house is always presented as a homogenous structure, with little regard for differentiation or diversity in these structures. This model relies heavily on several parade ground examples, such as the ‘Red Building’ and the Kissonerga ‘Building Model’ and buildings that do not fit in this model, have not been considered. The emergence of building differentiation has first been identified during the Middle Chalcolithic, and it has been argued that this variability resulted from ritual control. For the Late Chalcolithic, the evidence for building differentiation is illustrated by the ‘Pithos House’ of which it has been argued that the differentiation is a result of socio-economic organisation. Interestingly, these buildings are all conform to the internal arrangements of the standard Chalcolithic house. Thus, for both periods building differentiation has been explained to be associated to social competition. In order to scrutinize this hypothesis, the concept of house societies has been applied, in which mainly has been focussed on the buildings and the features therein. Whether settlements are hierarchically arranged can be inferred though house size, building elaboration, differences in food items, access to craft-produced items and burial practices. Therefore, it should be investigated whether we can recognize a difference in activities, building size and building elaboration, in order to identify these high-status buildings. A large dataset has been created combining all the architectural data of the four sites, in order to systematically study, compare and analyse them together. It has been concluded that a high degree of variability is present among Chalcolithic buildings, which can be both recognized on the site level and between sites. This differentiation is due to differences in function, but several high-status buildings have been identified also. Buildings in which a difference in the internal layout could be recognized did not function as houses but served as storage facilities and communal food processing and preparation buildings. Both curvilinear and rectilinear buildings served as such. Buildings which differed in terms of building size, building elaboration were conform to the standard spatial configuration and served primarily as houses. In these buildings evidence for access to different food items and craft-produced items has been encountered. Therefore, it can be argued that these buildings were high-status buildings.Show less
This thesis presents an interdisciplinary study including archaeological and philological evidence. It is concerned with the development of musical entertainment and the socio-cultural value and...Show moreThis thesis presents an interdisciplinary study including archaeological and philological evidence. It is concerned with the development of musical entertainment and the socio-cultural value and function of music in ancient Mesopotamia in the late 4th and 3rd millennium BCE. It also investigates changes in the form, venue and occasion of performances which are continuously affected by trajectories such as the period, religion, politics, technology, and style. It includes the classification of ancient instrument according to modern types on the basis of iconographical and archaeological materiel, as well as the identification of the most important instrument names in ancient Sumerian literary texts. Moreover, it concerned with different contexts of musical performance. A survey of depicted scenes has led to the definition of various topics which are structured in a rough chronological order according to their initial appearance. They are explained on the basis of archaeological, iconographical and / or literary evidence. This scholar-imposed scheme allows to examine instruments in their performative function. Thus, it is possible to investigate the socio-cultural role of music in certain historical periods from different perspectives and provides information about characteristics of political, intellectual or religious life. A catalogue of the all iconographic and archaeological attestations featuring musical instruments dating to the late 4th and 3rd millennium BCE as well as a survey of the Sumerian literary text corpus referring to musical performances are the foundation of this study.Show less
The study presented in this thesis investigates what structures can be interpreted as type of stone markers and how and why these have been used in the Jebel Qurma region, a desert landscape that...Show moreThe study presented in this thesis investigates what structures can be interpreted as type of stone markers and how and why these have been used in the Jebel Qurma region, a desert landscape that is part of the eastern badia (or Black Desert) northeast Jordan. The use of these structures is difficult to understand since these differ in physical qualities even when they have been positioned at the same places in the landscape. Some are well-built to be seen from far and all directions but many loosely piled and only visible from close distances. During two historical occupation phases stone markers are positioned in the Jebel Qurma region by societies with a pastoralist’s lifestyle. They explored and occupied the landscape intensively during a specific period of the year in order to hunt, pasture their livestock and to perform other dwelling activities in the landscape. . The complexities of the societies and the climate conditions in the research area contributed to a different way of the use of stone markers in the landscape. A typology/classifation could be established based on the needs of the societies. The physical qualities of the stone markers are related to their topographical positioning in the landscape. The stone markers used by the Safaitic society and traditional Bedouins are the evidence of a well-organized travel system to perform subsistence strategies in the interior of the landscape with livestock. Their interaction with stone markers contributes to the understanding how they used the landscape while they were moving with livestock through the region to get from one place to another.Show less
The Kura Araxes represents an important albeit understudied cultural horizon dated to the Early Bronze Age, often defined as a single cultural group that originated in Transcaucasia and spread into...Show moreThe Kura Araxes represents an important albeit understudied cultural horizon dated to the Early Bronze Age, often defined as a single cultural group that originated in Transcaucasia and spread into the greater Near East. Many details about Kura Araxes society still remain much debated as most of the theories discussing the identity of the culture are based on the distribution of characteristic ceramics, which can mask the various levels of complexity. This study focuses on the mortuary evidence found in designated Kura Araxes cemeteries, which has the potential to highlight more cultural heterogeneity. Patterns within burial practices including burial construction types, location of cemeteries, inhumation practices, gender, rituals, grave goods, geographic dispersals and chronological transitions are examined. The divisions in mortuary traditions are interpreted as corresponding to separations in economic and ethnic identities based on mobile and sedentary lifestyle interactions, which undergo transformations throughout the Kura Araxes chronological phases.Show less
Animals have played a major role in the Halaf. Animals did not only figure in Halaf subsistence and the economy, but they also played a prominent role in symbolism. We encounter animals in...Show moreAnimals have played a major role in the Halaf. Animals did not only figure in Halaf subsistence and the economy, but they also played a prominent role in symbolism. We encounter animals in different material categories, as images in wall paintings, on Halaf Fine Ware ceramics, sealings, and as stamps for sealing, amulets, and figurines. Animal remains have been found alongside those of humans, or in other special or ritual contexts. How can we understand these animal representations and ‘ritual’ animal deposits? This preliminary study explores the meanings of animals in the Halaf by using a new approach that was never employed in this area before: Social zooarchaeology. Social zooarchaeology views animals not only as ‘good to eat’, but also as ‘good to think with’ as Lévi-Strauss so famously pointed out. This study investigates multiple case studies from various sites, like Domuztepe (Turkey), Tell Kurdu (Turkey), Kazane Höyük (Turkey), Fıstıklı Hüyük (Turkey), Tell Sabi Abyad (Syria), Tell Khirbet esh-Shenef (Syria), Tell Arpachiyah (Iraq), Banahilk (Iraq), and Yarim Tepe I and II (Iraq). In order to interpret the various animal representations and ritual deposits, every material category and ritual animal deposit is considered in its depositional context and context of use. Furthermore, comparisons with the zooarchaeological record are made, and subsistence. Four main contexts can be recognized in which animals fulfilled symbolic roles, and these often overlap: 1) Domestic space, 2) ‘ritual’, including communal events, commensality and burial, and 3) administration, including storage, the marking of property, and the usage of objects as mnemonic devices, and 4) bodily adornment. It appears that animals might have functioned as a common spoken language in the sharing economy, figuring in complex narratives, myths, and rituals, enforcing human-human relationships and tying together diverse people from various backgrounds in communal events.Show less
This research focusses on de spatial context of the wall reliefs in the Northwest Palace of Assurnasirpal II, at Nimrud. This palace was built by Assurnasirpal II as the administrative centre of...Show moreThis research focusses on de spatial context of the wall reliefs in the Northwest Palace of Assurnasirpal II, at Nimrud. This palace was built by Assurnasirpal II as the administrative centre of the new capital of the empire at the beginning of the 9th century B.C. While doing so, the capital was moved from Assur to Nimrud. A lot of research has been done on Neo-Assyrian palaces, which often focusses on the wall reliefs that decorated the rooms of the palace. However, the wall reliefs have mainly been investigated in isolation. Especially the iconography of the images and their meaning have gotten a lot of attention. For example, images of hunting and war scenes are often associated with propaganda. However, to be able to make a statement about the meaning of these images, it is necessary to look at the context of these reliefs. The palace – and the rooms in the palace itself – were not accessible for everyone, and a great distinction can be made between the public and private quarters of the palace. In order to investigate the spatial context of the wall reliefs, the images on the reliefs, written sources, and reconstructions of the positions of the reliefs have been used. Firstly, the reliefs in each room, de locations of these rooms in de palace, and the images on the reliefs have been investigated. One can recognise different themes on the images: war scenes, hunting scenes, the bringing of tribute to the king, and religious scenes. Secondly, the functions of the rooms, and the designation between public and private quarters have been included in the research.Show less
Beads were often neglected in archeological considerations, investigated in an unsatisfactory way, used as eye catcher for publications and reduced to their esthetic value. In fact they are an...Show moreBeads were often neglected in archeological considerations, investigated in an unsatisfactory way, used as eye catcher for publications and reduced to their esthetic value. In fact they are an essential and inseparable part of Neolithic life, requiring complex concepts. They are linked to technology, exchange, ritual and esthetic. Tell Sabi Ayad yielded beads from the Late Neolithic only, which facilitates a case study focused on this restricted period. A large part of the beads is not directly datable, as many bead types and materials are diachronic, used in the Late Neolithic and Late Bronze Age. So the beads are dated according the levels where they were found. The excavations on Tell Sabi Ayad were subdivided in 5 operations, all with an own stratigraphy. Operation III was excavated over the largest surface area and most levels could be C14 dated. Only this operation allowed statistical considerations. It turned out that bead rates, diversity of types and colors did not increase with time, but in certain periods only. Raw materials, unfinished and reused beads in association with possible tools are rare on the tell. However this evidence and the amount of local stones suggest production on household level on the tell. Partly beads are fractured, but there are no indications for intentional fragmentation. On the contrary it seems that in grave context only pristine pieces of jewelry were deposited, but jewelry is not mandatory in burials. There are large differences regarding amount and quality of beads in the graves. These differences might indicate some kind of stratification within the society. The major portions of beads are single, complete beads. Necklaces, bracelets and anklets were found in much lesser quantities and mainly in grave context. The beads are all stored in depots in Syria and could not be studied directly. Therefore my study is based on the documentations produced in the field, and Neolithic bead technology is discussed in general. Generally investigations on beads are focused on technological or social aspects but do not work out the variations between Early and Late Neolithic stone beads. It remains challenging to investigate how beads changed with the onset of the Late Neolithic in a semi sedentary society. Show less
The Halaf culture is known for having the finest pottery making traditions of the ancient Near East. Its assemblage is dominated by various geometric designs, and a small part of this assemblage is...Show moreThe Halaf culture is known for having the finest pottery making traditions of the ancient Near East. Its assemblage is dominated by various geometric designs, and a small part of this assemblage is comprised of realistic designs. These realistic designs include depictions of objects, structures, animals, and only a few depict human figures. A mere twenty-five depictions to be precise. This thesis has gathered, for the first time ever, all the available Halaf fragments that depict human figures. These images have been found at ten different Halaf sites, where some sites yielded more than one image. All of the images were depicted on “Halaf Fine Ware”, a technologically improved serving vessel, that supposedly changed the way prehistoric people used ceramic wares. Earlier studies have paid attention to different aspects of these anthropomorphic designs. Some studies have focused on the stylistic aspects, and others have also incorporated meaning in their analysis of the images. Yet, no study has incorporated and commented on the context in which these fragments were found. This thesis is data-oriented, and the data set is approached from a variety of analytical perspectives: formal-stylistic, functional, and depositional.Show less
The aim of this research is to gain new insights in the changing of cooking practices and eating habits as a result of Frankish influence. To reach this aim, this study strives to seek a relation...Show moreThe aim of this research is to gain new insights in the changing of cooking practices and eating habits as a result of Frankish influence. To reach this aim, this study strives to seek a relation between cooking wares and cooking practices, and diet and eating habits. As a result, it aims to provide valuable information regarding the socio-economic, the cultural, and the local and regional perspective of both cooking practices and eating habits during the Middle to Late Byzantine period (ca. 1200-1500 AD). This research shows that there were indeed changes in cooking practices and eating habits during the Late-Byzantine/Frankish period in the Aegean, and these could have been related to each other. The evidence suggests that smaller, thinner, and taller cooking pots appear somewhere around the middle of the 13th century, replacing the previous globular, thicker ones from the Middle Byzantine period. This change could have been the result of a trend during the Late Byzantine/Frankish period towards more watery dishes, cooked in their own juices. The dietary evidence supports this considerable difference in the Byzantine Aegean diet and the Medieval Western diet, primarily at the higher classes of society. Unfortunately, the effects of Christian Orthodox fasting rules on diet and eating habits or Frankish meat consumption are not visible in stable isotope values from multiple sites in Greece. A socio-economic perspective on the ceramic and dietary evidence during this period could indicate a possible Frankish influence on local cooking practices and eating habits. However, it is not with certainty to say that these changes were actual the result of Frankish influence. From a cultural perspective, it appears that the change to different cooking practices and eating habits in Late Byzantine/Frankish times may not only have been the result of the appearance of the Franks into the scene, but also of growing wealth. Furthermore, it is difficult to distinguish different cooking practices between the higher and lower classes in the Byzantine Aegean or the Medieval West, while substantial variations between town and country or between different local environments must have determined food choice and availability to a certain extent. The local and regional perspective also supports the fact that ceramic and dietary distinctions existed between town, country, and other areas. Urban settlements were more likely to be influenced by a Frankish presence than rural settlements. The experimentation indicates that similar production methods were used for both type of cooking wares. In this regard, it seems very plausible that the Franks did not bring their own potters. The Middle Byzantine way of production seems to have persisted after the Frankish conquest, without noticeable morphological changes.Show less
The thesis analyses the extension of the Urartian Empire and focuses on its northern provinces and frontier regions. It demonstrates how far the Urartian state extended to north in Transcaucasia...Show moreThe thesis analyses the extension of the Urartian Empire and focuses on its northern provinces and frontier regions. It demonstrates how far the Urartian state extended to north in Transcaucasia and shows the different degrees of political control exercised by the central imperial authority over the conquered regions. Urartu, like other ancient empires and states, was not a monolithic, contiguous political and territorial formation, and its boundaries were rather fluid and loosely defined than static like the borders of modern nation states. To achieve a better understanding of the archaeology of political control of the Urartian Empire, four categories and further subcategories of the Urartian cultural assemblage are defined that best represent the Urartian political/administrative landscape: architecture (subdivided by major administrative centres, fortresses and tombs), the display inscriptions, metalwork and pottery. By analysing the distribution of Urartian cultural assemblage, different zones are defined within the Urartian political/administrative landscape such as core, province and frontier, in which the central authority exercised its power and control to varying degrees.Show less
Little is known about the Edomites, a people that lived in the ancient Near East during the early Biblical times. We have even less information about their religion. Horvat Qitmit is a striking...Show moreLittle is known about the Edomites, a people that lived in the ancient Near East during the early Biblical times. We have even less information about their religion. Horvat Qitmit is a striking site that consist of a shrine. It is one of the most important sites to give information about Edomite religion. This thesis compares the finds of this site to both ancient textual sources and the literature that has been written about the Edomites over the last 100 years or so. This results in a critical overview of what is known about the Edomites and more specifically their religion today; which information is outdated and has been revised and which information appears to be confirmed and can thus still be used today.Show less
Het Gudit Stèle Veld was een gebied ten zuidwesten van Aksum, Ethiopië. Het dateert uit de 3e en 4e eeuw na Chr. en in deze periode zijn ongeveer honderd stèles hier neergezet. Welke functie had...Show moreHet Gudit Stèle Veld was een gebied ten zuidwesten van Aksum, Ethiopië. Het dateert uit de 3e en 4e eeuw na Chr. en in deze periode zijn ongeveer honderd stèles hier neergezet. Welke functie had het Gudit stèle veld binnen de Aksumitische samenleving gedurende de opkomst van het christendom?Show less
