Tangible explanations for structural changes in terrorism over time are missing. Furthermore, attempting to explain such changes as ideological is problematic in that it reinforces a tautology,...Show moreTangible explanations for structural changes in terrorism over time are missing. Furthermore, attempting to explain such changes as ideological is problematic in that it reinforces a tautology, considering that terrorism itself is often conceptualised as inherently ideological. Problematising the notion of ideology in the definition of terrorism and the typology of changes in terrorism, therefore, offers an exit from such continuous circular reasoning that focuses on ideology. A tangible change in terrorism is that from pack terrorism, i.e. group terrorism, to lone wolf terrorism. Three rival explanations potentially account for this change. An ideological explanation that focuses on the capability of ideology to spark violence, as well as a contextual explanation that argues that changes in the living environments of perpetrators lead to changes in the characteristics of terrorism, cannot stand firm when taken to the test. Meanwhile, a processual explanation according to which terrorist and counterterrorist forces continuously exploit the other side’s disadvantage does. Ultimately, changes in terrorism can be conceptualised using the analogy of a cat-and-mouse game in which learning and adaptation processes on the side of terrorists and counterterrorist forces likewise cause terrorism to change structurally.Show less
Through the case study of the NPFL in Liberia, this thesis explains why some rebel groups are able to transform to a successful political organization after conflict, and others are unable to do so.
Rising numbers of religious extremism are an increasing concern in Western Europe. As Western Europe is secular, and secular ideology seeks to diminish the influence of religion on society, this...Show moreRising numbers of religious extremism are an increasing concern in Western Europe. As Western Europe is secular, and secular ideology seeks to diminish the influence of religion on society, this rise is peculiar. It raises the question why religious extremism is on the rise in Western Europe despite its secular environment. Evidence suggests there is a causal link between religious extremism and secularism. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to investigate such a causal relation between secularism and religious extremism in Western Europe. To rule out other explanations, this study identified two rival explanations: A cultural disconnect and geopolitical factors. The validity of all three explanations was tested through a case study analysis of France, the Netherlands and Belgium. The results concluded that the cultural disconnect and the geopolitical explanation are not correct. However, the study concluded that certain forms of secularism lead to a rise of religious extremism in Western Europe. The cases demonstrate the mechanism behind this: States enforce disproportionately strict secular policies through a strict separation between the public sphere and the private sphere, and a positive bias towards the pre-existing dominant religion. These two factors trigger reactive religiosity, leading to religious extremism. Conclusively, disproportionate secularism plays a pivotal role in the rise of religious extremism in Western Europe.Show less
This thesis discusses the potential connections between hate crime and xenophobia in the United States during the first two years of Donald Trump’s presidency. Drawing upon the academic debate on...Show moreThis thesis discusses the potential connections between hate crime and xenophobia in the United States during the first two years of Donald Trump’s presidency. Drawing upon the academic debate on violence and the potential connections between different levels of violence, this thesis aims to contribute by researching the potential connections between a form of structural violence and a form direct violence. Through an analysis of White House documents and the FBI’s hate crime statistics, this study has sought to discuss the influence of Trump’s political xenophobia towards Arabs and Latinos on the number of hate crime incidents with either Arab or Latino victims. The case studies have illustrated that there is clear correlation between political xenophobia and hate crime towards Arabs and Latinos in the US, as the number of hate crimes towards these group increased after periods of clear xenophobic sentiment from the Trump administration. This thesis, therefore, argues in favor of a broader approach to the concept of violence, as acknowledging the true width of violence in societies is the only way to eradicate it.Show less
