The Iron Age hillfort phenomenon, or the ‘oppidum’ as it is referred to in mainland Europe, represents an important shift in the spatial and political dynamics in the areas where they can be found...Show moreThe Iron Age hillfort phenomenon, or the ‘oppidum’ as it is referred to in mainland Europe, represents an important shift in the spatial and political dynamics in the areas where they can be found but despite the archaeological research going as far back as the 19th century, there still exist debates surrounding their function and what role they ultimately played in the socioeconomic dynamics of the people constructing and inhabiting them. In southern France we find them scattered across a frontier connecting the Ligurian and Celtic people to the Etruscans and to the Eastern Mediterranean through the Greek settlers who, after the foundation of Massalia around 600 B.C, form a permanent presence greatly influencing the material repertoire of the indigenous populace. Through the interactions between the occupants of the oppida with their local surroundings as well as with foreign cultures, and through the analysis of these monumental structures, it can be seen that the military function can be put into question and that the symbolic value may have been a more important factor to their builders.Show less
The study of prehistoric burial sites in the Netherlands has a rich history. However, past archaeological research have often examined burial structures in isolation. This thesis aims to...Show moreThe study of prehistoric burial sites in the Netherlands has a rich history. However, past archaeological research have often examined burial structures in isolation. This thesis aims to investigate and specifically model the spatial relationship between burial structures and houses during the Bronze and Iron Ages in North Brabant. Four primary questions were discussed: how these elements are distributed in space, whether gathered data can predict their proximity, how this relationship evolves over time and what this relation meant to these peoples. Using QGIS selected features from the sites will be used to create maps that show the relation between the different structures. These maps are then combined by period to create models based on the normal distribution the distances of houses from a grave structure. The research shows there was a trend over time and that it was possible to predict the location of a house based on the location of burial structure. The impossibility of knowing the meaning behind this relation was discussed, but two possible interpretations are given: the structures might have served as territorial markers or the location might have been tied to a ritual landscape and the houses. Finally the challenges faced during this research are discussed, including the need for more sites to enhance models an and the lack of adequately dated features is discussed. De studie van prehistorische begraafplaatsen in Nederland kent een rijke geschiedenis. Echter heeft eerder archeologisch onderzoek vaak begraafstructuren geïsoleerd bestudeerd. Deze thesis heeft als doel de ruimtelijke relatie tussen begraafstructuren en huizen tijdens het Brons- en IJzertijdperk in Noord-Brabant te onderzoeken en specifiek te modelleren. Vier hoofdvragen zijn besproken: hoe deze elementen in de ruimte zijn verdeeld, of verzamelde gegevens de locatie van huizen kunnen voorspellen, hoe deze relatie in de loop der tijd evolueert en wat deze relatie betekende voor deze bevolkingsgroepen. Met behulp van QGIS worden geselecteerde features van de locaties gebruikt om kaarten te maken die de relatie tussen de verschillende structuren laten zien. Deze kaarten worden vervolgens per periode gecombineerd om modellen te creëren op basis van de normale verdeling van de afstanden van huizen tot een grafstructuur. Het onderzoek toont aan dat er in de loop van de tijd een trend was en dat het mogelijk was om de locatie van een huis te voorspellen op basis van de locatie van een begraafstructuur. De onmogelijkheid om de betekenis achter deze relatie te kennen werd besproken, maar twee mogelijke interpretaties werden gegeven: de structuren zouden dienst hebben gedaan als territoriale markeringen, of de locatie zou verbonden kunnen zijn met een ritueel landschap en de huizen. Ten slotte worden de uitdagingen besproken die tijdens dit onderzoek zijn ondervonden, waaronder de behoefte aan meer locaties om modellen te verbeteren, en het gebrek aan voldoende gedateerde features wordt besproken.Show less
This research paper explores migration and dietary patterns during the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age at the Gomolava site in northern Serbia. The strontium and oxygen isotopes were used to...Show moreThis research paper explores migration and dietary patterns during the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age at the Gomolava site in northern Serbia. The strontium and oxygen isotopes were used to study mobility, while carbon isotopes offered insights into dietary habits. The study focuses on 24 individuals from Gomolava, mainly females and juveniles. Additionally, eight modern plant samples were analysed. The site itself is a mass grave primarily consisting of female and juvenile remains. Two individuals in particular, SK53 and SK18, displayed distinct strontium values, indicating different places of origin. Comparative analysis of the Carpathian Basin further suggests that SK53 may not be indigenous to the region. However, further research is necessary to accurately determine the precise origins of these individuals. On the other hand, oxygen isotopes provide limited information in differentiating between local and non-local individuals. The dietary patterns of the Gomolava individuals were also examined through stable carbon isotope analysis. It was discovered that their diet consisted of a combination of C3 and C4 plants, with millet probably playing a significant role during this period. Two outliers, SK53 and SK42, displayed distinct dietary paths, with SK53 relying more heavily on C4 plants compared to SK42, which primarily consumed C3 plants. SK18 had a mixed diet, incorporating both types of plants. The heightened levels of mobility witnessed during the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age in the Pannonian Basin can be plausibly linked to various factors, including climate fluctuations and societal upheavals. Additionally, the increased mobility observed among females may be attributed to the cultural practice of patrilocality, whereby women relocate to their husband's familial dwelling upon marriage. To attain a more comprehensive comprehension of the patterns of mobility, social dynamics, and dietary practices prevalent in ancient populations, further research incorporating a wide array of archaeological methodologies is necessary.Show less
The experience and expression of emotion is a core aspect of humanity, but is also inherently subjective. Emotion also influences the way we as researchers look at history. In this paper, these...Show moreThe experience and expression of emotion is a core aspect of humanity, but is also inherently subjective. Emotion also influences the way we as researchers look at history. In this paper, these concepts will be demonstrated using the Chieftain's Grave of Oss as an example. Using multiple subjective, academic approaches, two possible scenario's of the Chieftain's burial ritual in the Iron Age will be presented, that change the way we view this burial.Show less
Our understanding of past societies is completely or partly based on how they buried their dead. However, more attention is paid to the burial objects rather than the body. Therefore, understanding...Show moreOur understanding of past societies is completely or partly based on how they buried their dead. However, more attention is paid to the burial objects rather than the body. Therefore, understanding positions and what they could mean within a society and religion could help us better understand how these societies operated and what they valued. However, there is a lack of standardization and consistent, approach of intentional body positions during burial. This lack of standardization makes it difficult to compare data, especially concerning data across continents and scholarly methods. In this thesis, I will compare data from several seated burials from the La Tène period ranging from 450 to 100 BC in France and Britain. In order to understand their cultural significance and create a better understanding of seated burials on an intra-regional level.Show less
This MA thesis focuses on ceramics from the Bronze and Iron Ages in the southern Netherlands (2000-12 BC) and their use for dating purposes. Researchers used to define and subsequently date types...Show moreThis MA thesis focuses on ceramics from the Bronze and Iron Ages in the southern Netherlands (2000-12 BC) and their use for dating purposes. Researchers used to define and subsequently date types on the basis of characteristics, which is known as a typo-chronology. Around the mid-20th century, absolute dating, and 14C dating in particular, was developed. The legacy of typo-chronology was kept alive, however, and only sporadically questioned by researchers that reverted to absolute dating. In many cases, this questioning was also carried out for narrower time periods. This thesis brings typo-chronologies and absolute dating together within the context of a wider time period, in order to discover the current status of research for this wider time period and to find out how/where research is currently lacking. This endeavour was started by initially compiling an overview of the applicable typo-chronologies considering a handful of variables relating to shape, decoration and material. Subsequently, a compilation of research was made that compares ceramics to absolute dating. Aside of this, a dataset of ceramic assemblages tied to absolute dating was created and discussed. The combined data was used for discussions and conclusions. Finally, the combined results were used to create a physical reference collection with a manual containing a lot of tables and imagery. The main conclusions are that some periods (e.g. Late Bronze Age) are typologically overshadowed by other periods (Iron Age). The vast amount of detail of the leading Iron Age typo-chronology generally causes researchers to make mistakes. Recommendations include paying more attention to some periods and types of ceramics in order to fill voids of knowledge created by focus and disregard. Better compilations and visualisations (e.g. 3D scans) of absolutely dated examples are also recommended.Show less
This MA thesis focuses on ceramics from the Bronze and Iron Ages in the southern Netherlands (2000-12 BC) and their use for dating purposes. Researchers used to define and subsequently date types...Show moreThis MA thesis focuses on ceramics from the Bronze and Iron Ages in the southern Netherlands (2000-12 BC) and their use for dating purposes. Researchers used to define and subsequently date types on the basis of characteristics, which is known as a typo-chronology. Around the mid-20th century, absolute dating, and 14C dating in particular, was developed. The legacy of typo-chronology was kept alive, however, and only sporadically questioned by researchers that reverted to absolute dating. In many cases, this questioning was also carried out for narrower time periods. This thesis brings typo-chronologies and absolute dating together within the context of a wider time period, in order to discover the current status of research for this wider time period and to find out how/where research is currently lacking. This endeavour was started by initially compiling an overview of the applicable typo-chronologies considering a handful of variables relating to shape, decoration and material. Subsequently, a compilation of research was made that compares ceramics to absolute dating. Aside of this, a dataset of ceramic assemblages tied to absolute dating was created and discussed. The combined data was used for discussions and conclusions. Finally, the combined results were used to create a physical reference collection with a manual containing a lot of tables and imagery. The main conclusions are that some periods (e.g. Late Bronze Age) are typologically overshadowed by other periods (Iron Age). The vast amount of detail of the leading Iron Age typo-chronology generally causes researchers to make mistakes. Recommendations include paying more attention to some periods and types of ceramics in order to fill voids of knowledge created by focus and disregard. Better compilations and visualisations (e.g. 3D scans) of absolutely dated examples are also recommended.Show less
Human activities have impacted the natural landscape and vegetation from the emergence of agriculture onwards. Subsequent traces of anthropogenic activities are documented and preserved in...Show moreHuman activities have impacted the natural landscape and vegetation from the emergence of agriculture onwards. Subsequent traces of anthropogenic activities are documented and preserved in paleoenvironmental archives, such as peat or lake sequences. The current study utilizes a high-resolution pollen dataset retrieved from a peat sequence in combination with archaeological data from the area to reconstruct the paleoenvironment and cultural landscape of the area of Haraldstadmyr bog in Southeastern Norway. An in-depth analysis of agricultural activities was performed focusing on the period of the Early Iron Age to the Medieval Period. Utilizing radiocarbon dating, a chronology of farming activities was provided. Archaeological burial dates from a local burial site located were used in comparison with the pollen data to interpret habitational patterns of the local area. As a result, periods of intensive farming as well as periods of abandonment were identified. In addition, periods of pastoral farming were distinguished from periods of mixed farming. The forcing factors of the changes seen in farming strategies and agricultural intensity are likely related to climate changes as well as societal changes in the area. In this study, a new finding is proposed, indicating an abandonment of the area around 950 CE. An abandonment of the agricultural area in Southeastern Norway in the mid 10th century has not been previously discovered nor studied. Further in-depth studies are needed in order to confirm this finding, as well as to identify the forcing factors of the abandonment.Show less
Research master thesis | Archaeology (research) (MA/MSc)
open access
Towards the end of prehistory, the landscapes of Northwestern Europe developed into carefully organized places that feel more akin to those of historical and modern times. According to Mette...Show moreTowards the end of prehistory, the landscapes of Northwestern Europe developed into carefully organized places that feel more akin to those of historical and modern times. According to Mette Løvschal (2014), these landscapes saw the emergence of lines and boundaries with specific functions and meanings, especially in the Urnfield period (Late Bronze Age – Early Iron Age). This thesis focuses on a number of micro-regions in the Netherlands: Epe-Niersen, Oss and Boxmeer-Sterckwijck. The aim of this study is to gain a nuanced, inter-regional understanding on how these organized landscapes developed in the long term, and what influence older, visual features from the past had on the way people dealt with them in the Urnfield period. Especially barrow alignments are notable. They clearly impacted the way people dealt with these ‘ancestral landscapes’, but in significantly different ways. At Epe-Niersen, the urnfields and Celtic field emerged solely near ancestral mounds outside of the barrow alignment. At Boxmeer-Sterckwijck, the opposite happened: The barrow line itself transformed into a dense urnfield. Thirdly, the barrow line of Oss-Zevenbergen was completely re-structured with the construction of large, monumental burial mounds, scattered urnfield-graves and post alignments. A close association between the funerary landscape and settlements is observed at Boxmeer-Sterckwijck. On the other hand, Oss-North and Oss-Ussen are a striking example of a landscape that lacked any older, visual features before the emergence of settlements in the Middle Bronze Age. Therefore, in the absence of pre-existing lines and boundaries, people ended up creating them themselves, after which they were referred to in similar ways during subsequent occupation phases. This study demonstrates that the past was unavoidable in the organization of landscapes in the Urnfield period. Furthermore, the general succession in which barrow lines, urnfields, Celtic fields and organized settlements emerged was time-transgressive in nature, meaning that they developed at different point in time at each site. Nonetheless, is seems that each region reached a certain ‘tipping point’ were the landscapes inevitably developed into highly organized areas in line with the past.Show less
This BA thesis focusses on one aspect of the burial tradition of the late Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age in the South of the Netherlands and adjacent Belgium (1100-500 B.C.). During this period...Show moreThis BA thesis focusses on one aspect of the burial tradition of the late Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age in the South of the Netherlands and adjacent Belgium (1100-500 B.C.). During this period of time, the vast majority of the population of North-western Europe was buried in large collective cemeteries; urnfields. Therefore, this period was also known as the Urnfield Period. The deceased were cremated and buried in small burial pits, with or without urns, to which small burial mounds and ring ditches were added. Nevertheless, in different locations, there are examples of burials in which the deceased were buried in much older burial mounds (secondary burials) or changes have been made to these burial mounds (modifications). This concerns an aberrant burial practice with re-use of burial monuments from a distant past. Although this phenomenon has been named in several publications, it lacked further analysis hitherto. This research, which is based on literature review, accommodates such analysis with a further categorization, with the underlying purpose to recover patterns. To achieve the recovery of patterns several things have been researched, among which are the type of burial mounds re-used, the manner in which they were heightened, expanded and cut through, the locations within the burial mounds where the deceased were buried, the type of grave goods that were present, the type of individuals that were buried and the correlation between them. In addition, the potential motivations for this phenomenon have been discussed, to which degree this corresponds with common burials in urnfields and whether this could have been a collective tradition. This has revealed a high degree of diversity in re-use, yet there appears to be indication of specific choices, and in particular two specific patterns have been revealed. Firstly, several individuals were potentially purposefully buried eccentrically within older burial mounds, whereas others were buried in the centre, disturbing the original graves. Therefore, in some cases, one could have been aware that people from a near or distant past were buried in these burial mounds. Secondly, the practice of secondary burials almost exclusively concerned female individuals; at least in the cases with sex estimations. Because this research was focused on aberrant burial practices, the amount number of available samples was, in fact, too small for definitive conclusions. Further research could be directed at the expansion of the research area (e.g. to Germany) and, if possible, to research the (osteological) “raw data” of sites with cases of re-use.Show less
Ceramics are among the most commonly found materials recovered from the archaeological record. Ceramic objects can provide a variety of information about the life of people in the past. Therefore,...Show moreCeramics are among the most commonly found materials recovered from the archaeological record. Ceramic objects can provide a variety of information about the life of people in the past. Therefore, archaeologists have at their disposal a variety of (traditional) techniques to study pottery, in order to make inferences about the communities that used the pottery. Recently, analytical methods in the field of ceramic studies, such as residue analysis and microscopic use-wear analysis have developed. In this research, the applicability of use-wear analysis for ceramics is addressed. The methodology applied to this research integrates both use-wear analysis and experimental archaeology. The archaeological dataset consisted of ceramics from the Iron Age settlements of Mont Lassois and the Heuneburg and experimental vessels. The aim of this study was to create a reference collection for use-wear traces on ceramics and to study whether use-wear observed on the experimental vessels could be related to traces on the archaeological ceramics, in order to infer about ceramic function in the past. Unlike other archaeological materials, use-wear analyses on ceramics has not been widely applied yet (Skibo 2015). Replicas of vessels from Mont Lassois and the Heuneburg have been created at the Material Culture Studies Laboratory at the University of Leiden. A series of experiments was carried out in order to replicate various domestic activities such as food preparation, the storing of pots and cooking. The use-wear traces created during the experiments as well as observed on the archaeological ceramics were analyzed by means of a stereomicroscope. Microscopic pictures were taken of the use-wear traces, and the vessels have been drawn to record the traces, in order to establish a vast reference collection. In order to get a better understanding of pottery use and the accumulation of wear on vessels, the use-wear traces on the experimental vessels were compared to the archaeological material from Mont Lassois and the Heuneburg. It was determined that similar use-wear traces could be observed both on the experimental as well as on the archaeological material. Use-wear analysis can provide more detailed information about the actual use of pottery in the past. Therefore, an important step in the chaîne opératoire, or life biography, of pottery can be studied. To conclude, in a multidisciplinary research use-wear analysis can greatly add to existing analytical methods, providing specific information on the handling of vessels and their corresponding gestures.Show less
Animal remains that were discovered in cremation- or inhumation graves dating to the prehistory are often interpreted as food offerings for the deceased. Animals are still categorized in human...Show moreAnimal remains that were discovered in cremation- or inhumation graves dating to the prehistory are often interpreted as food offerings for the deceased. Animals are still categorized in human-subject and animal-object categories that interpret animals as an addition to the live of the prehistoric people instead of living beings. Interpreting animal remains from graves with this approach limits the possibility that animals were buried other than food offerings. This traditional view has been questioned by scholars such as Russell and Hill. Their research has concluded that many prehistoric habitants perceived objects in their universe as living and dynamic agents able to make independent and deliberate decisions. Russell has made a subdivision between different animal find categories found in graves. With these categories, he rejects the pre-assumption that animals were only used for their nutritional value and always placed as a food offering in the grave. This thesis tests the approach from Russell and Hill by analyzing faunal remains that were found in the Bronze- and Iron Age graves in the Netherlands. The aim of this thesis is to research if there is a different perspective on how prehistoric people perceived and used animals. For both the faunal remains from the Bronze Age as for the remains from the Iron Age a database is constructed. The faunal assemblage is thereafter analysed and categorized in the following five categories: food offerings (bones from meaty parts of the animal), ornamental grave goods (decorated or perforated objects and hunting trophies), implements (tools), individuals (complete animal skeletons) and the last category contains other uncategorized finds. An overview of animals that were found in Bronze- and Iron Age settlements were presented in this thesis. Animals found at settlements in the Bronze- and Iron Age consist mainly of livestock animals, such as cattle, sheep/goats and pigs. In Bronze Age settlements game animals were found often, indicating that these animals were still part of the diet. In Iron Age settlements game animals were found sporadically, indicating that these were not frequently eaten. Various animal species were discovered in both Bronze- and Iron Age graves. Animals that were found in Bronze Age graves were cattle, sheep/goat, pig, horse, dog, deer, fish, bird and brown bear. Animals that were found in Iron Age graves were cattle, sheep/goat, pig, horse, deer, bird, fish and marten. The results of the comparative analysis between the Bronze- and Iron Age animal remains prove that there is a changing perception of animals demonstrated between the Bronze- and Iron Age. During the Bronze Age, animals were frequently buried as ornaments and individuals. Animals that were buried as individuals were treated as if they were humans. Food offerings to the deceased was not often observed. This could be indicating that some Bronze Age people formed an emotional bond with animals, which is in sharp contrast with the traditional view that animals were only held due to their nutritional value. In the Iron Age on the other hand animals were mainly buried offered as food and less frequently as ornamental- and implements or individuals, which can be interpreted as attempts by family members or friends to ensure that the deceased would not suffer from food shortage in the afterlife. The Dutch Bronze- and Iron Age faunal assemblage indicates a shift in the perception of animals between the Bronze- and Iron Age from a perception that allowed people to bond emotionally with animals to a perception of animals that is focused on their ritual and nutritional value.Show less
Loom weights have been found all over the world and there are clear regional distinctions in shape and size, but a few types like conical weights seem to be used repeatedly in most regions. In the...Show moreLoom weights have been found all over the world and there are clear regional distinctions in shape and size, but a few types like conical weights seem to be used repeatedly in most regions. In the European Iron Age, a new type of loom weight is introduced with a flat triangular shape and perforations through the corners and often through the centre of the weight. The introduction of this new type of weight is reason for a big discussion. The generally accepted hypothesis on the function of triangular loom weights comes from Loewe (1971, 35, footnote 66), in which he describes how the triangular weights with three perforations were used to secure a bundle of warp threads, making it easier to fabricate longer pieces of textile and rolling the textile up for storing purposes. This presumably gave the triangular weights an advantage over the earlier conical and pyramidal weights. However, some archaeologists disapprove of this assessment of function, they presume a function as net sinker or spanner for hides is more likable. The research of this thesis shows that these objects show a large number of characteristics that are purely necessary for the function as loom weight. Therefore, a primary function as loom weight is accepted.Show less
