The study of prehistoric burial sites in the Netherlands has a rich history. However, past archaeological research have often examined burial structures in isolation. This thesis aims to...Show moreThe study of prehistoric burial sites in the Netherlands has a rich history. However, past archaeological research have often examined burial structures in isolation. This thesis aims to investigate and specifically model the spatial relationship between burial structures and houses during the Bronze and Iron Ages in North Brabant. Four primary questions were discussed: how these elements are distributed in space, whether gathered data can predict their proximity, how this relationship evolves over time and what this relation meant to these peoples. Using QGIS selected features from the sites will be used to create maps that show the relation between the different structures. These maps are then combined by period to create models based on the normal distribution the distances of houses from a grave structure. The research shows there was a trend over time and that it was possible to predict the location of a house based on the location of burial structure. The impossibility of knowing the meaning behind this relation was discussed, but two possible interpretations are given: the structures might have served as territorial markers or the location might have been tied to a ritual landscape and the houses. Finally the challenges faced during this research are discussed, including the need for more sites to enhance models an and the lack of adequately dated features is discussed. De studie van prehistorische begraafplaatsen in Nederland kent een rijke geschiedenis. Echter heeft eerder archeologisch onderzoek vaak begraafstructuren geïsoleerd bestudeerd. Deze thesis heeft als doel de ruimtelijke relatie tussen begraafstructuren en huizen tijdens het Brons- en IJzertijdperk in Noord-Brabant te onderzoeken en specifiek te modelleren. Vier hoofdvragen zijn besproken: hoe deze elementen in de ruimte zijn verdeeld, of verzamelde gegevens de locatie van huizen kunnen voorspellen, hoe deze relatie in de loop der tijd evolueert en wat deze relatie betekende voor deze bevolkingsgroepen. Met behulp van QGIS worden geselecteerde features van de locaties gebruikt om kaarten te maken die de relatie tussen de verschillende structuren laten zien. Deze kaarten worden vervolgens per periode gecombineerd om modellen te creëren op basis van de normale verdeling van de afstanden van huizen tot een grafstructuur. Het onderzoek toont aan dat er in de loop van de tijd een trend was en dat het mogelijk was om de locatie van een huis te voorspellen op basis van de locatie van een begraafstructuur. De onmogelijkheid om de betekenis achter deze relatie te kennen werd besproken, maar twee mogelijke interpretaties werden gegeven: de structuren zouden dienst hebben gedaan als territoriale markeringen, of de locatie zou verbonden kunnen zijn met een ritueel landschap en de huizen. Ten slotte worden de uitdagingen besproken die tijdens dit onderzoek zijn ondervonden, waaronder de behoefte aan meer locaties om modellen te verbeteren, en het gebrek aan voldoende gedateerde features wordt besproken.Show less
This MA thesis focuses on ceramics from the Bronze and Iron Ages in the southern Netherlands (2000-12 BC) and their use for dating purposes. Researchers used to define and subsequently date types...Show moreThis MA thesis focuses on ceramics from the Bronze and Iron Ages in the southern Netherlands (2000-12 BC) and their use for dating purposes. Researchers used to define and subsequently date types on the basis of characteristics, which is known as a typo-chronology. Around the mid-20th century, absolute dating, and 14C dating in particular, was developed. The legacy of typo-chronology was kept alive, however, and only sporadically questioned by researchers that reverted to absolute dating. In many cases, this questioning was also carried out for narrower time periods. This thesis brings typo-chronologies and absolute dating together within the context of a wider time period, in order to discover the current status of research for this wider time period and to find out how/where research is currently lacking. This endeavour was started by initially compiling an overview of the applicable typo-chronologies considering a handful of variables relating to shape, decoration and material. Subsequently, a compilation of research was made that compares ceramics to absolute dating. Aside of this, a dataset of ceramic assemblages tied to absolute dating was created and discussed. The combined data was used for discussions and conclusions. Finally, the combined results were used to create a physical reference collection with a manual containing a lot of tables and imagery. The main conclusions are that some periods (e.g. Late Bronze Age) are typologically overshadowed by other periods (Iron Age). The vast amount of detail of the leading Iron Age typo-chronology generally causes researchers to make mistakes. Recommendations include paying more attention to some periods and types of ceramics in order to fill voids of knowledge created by focus and disregard. Better compilations and visualisations (e.g. 3D scans) of absolutely dated examples are also recommended.Show less
This MA thesis focuses on ceramics from the Bronze and Iron Ages in the southern Netherlands (2000-12 BC) and their use for dating purposes. Researchers used to define and subsequently date types...Show moreThis MA thesis focuses on ceramics from the Bronze and Iron Ages in the southern Netherlands (2000-12 BC) and their use for dating purposes. Researchers used to define and subsequently date types on the basis of characteristics, which is known as a typo-chronology. Around the mid-20th century, absolute dating, and 14C dating in particular, was developed. The legacy of typo-chronology was kept alive, however, and only sporadically questioned by researchers that reverted to absolute dating. In many cases, this questioning was also carried out for narrower time periods. This thesis brings typo-chronologies and absolute dating together within the context of a wider time period, in order to discover the current status of research for this wider time period and to find out how/where research is currently lacking. This endeavour was started by initially compiling an overview of the applicable typo-chronologies considering a handful of variables relating to shape, decoration and material. Subsequently, a compilation of research was made that compares ceramics to absolute dating. Aside of this, a dataset of ceramic assemblages tied to absolute dating was created and discussed. The combined data was used for discussions and conclusions. Finally, the combined results were used to create a physical reference collection with a manual containing a lot of tables and imagery. The main conclusions are that some periods (e.g. Late Bronze Age) are typologically overshadowed by other periods (Iron Age). The vast amount of detail of the leading Iron Age typo-chronology generally causes researchers to make mistakes. Recommendations include paying more attention to some periods and types of ceramics in order to fill voids of knowledge created by focus and disregard. Better compilations and visualisations (e.g. 3D scans) of absolutely dated examples are also recommended.Show less
Research master thesis | Archaeology (research) (MA/MSc)
open access
Towards the end of prehistory, the landscapes of Northwestern Europe developed into carefully organized places that feel more akin to those of historical and modern times. According to Mette...Show moreTowards the end of prehistory, the landscapes of Northwestern Europe developed into carefully organized places that feel more akin to those of historical and modern times. According to Mette Løvschal (2014), these landscapes saw the emergence of lines and boundaries with specific functions and meanings, especially in the Urnfield period (Late Bronze Age – Early Iron Age). This thesis focuses on a number of micro-regions in the Netherlands: Epe-Niersen, Oss and Boxmeer-Sterckwijck. The aim of this study is to gain a nuanced, inter-regional understanding on how these organized landscapes developed in the long term, and what influence older, visual features from the past had on the way people dealt with them in the Urnfield period. Especially barrow alignments are notable. They clearly impacted the way people dealt with these ‘ancestral landscapes’, but in significantly different ways. At Epe-Niersen, the urnfields and Celtic field emerged solely near ancestral mounds outside of the barrow alignment. At Boxmeer-Sterckwijck, the opposite happened: The barrow line itself transformed into a dense urnfield. Thirdly, the barrow line of Oss-Zevenbergen was completely re-structured with the construction of large, monumental burial mounds, scattered urnfield-graves and post alignments. A close association between the funerary landscape and settlements is observed at Boxmeer-Sterckwijck. On the other hand, Oss-North and Oss-Ussen are a striking example of a landscape that lacked any older, visual features before the emergence of settlements in the Middle Bronze Age. Therefore, in the absence of pre-existing lines and boundaries, people ended up creating them themselves, after which they were referred to in similar ways during subsequent occupation phases. This study demonstrates that the past was unavoidable in the organization of landscapes in the Urnfield period. Furthermore, the general succession in which barrow lines, urnfields, Celtic fields and organized settlements emerged was time-transgressive in nature, meaning that they developed at different point in time at each site. Nonetheless, is seems that each region reached a certain ‘tipping point’ were the landscapes inevitably developed into highly organized areas in line with the past.Show less
Ceramics are among the most commonly found materials recovered from the archaeological record. Ceramic objects can provide a variety of information about the life of people in the past. Therefore,...Show moreCeramics are among the most commonly found materials recovered from the archaeological record. Ceramic objects can provide a variety of information about the life of people in the past. Therefore, archaeologists have at their disposal a variety of (traditional) techniques to study pottery, in order to make inferences about the communities that used the pottery. Recently, analytical methods in the field of ceramic studies, such as residue analysis and microscopic use-wear analysis have developed. In this research, the applicability of use-wear analysis for ceramics is addressed. The methodology applied to this research integrates both use-wear analysis and experimental archaeology. The archaeological dataset consisted of ceramics from the Iron Age settlements of Mont Lassois and the Heuneburg and experimental vessels. The aim of this study was to create a reference collection for use-wear traces on ceramics and to study whether use-wear observed on the experimental vessels could be related to traces on the archaeological ceramics, in order to infer about ceramic function in the past. Unlike other archaeological materials, use-wear analyses on ceramics has not been widely applied yet (Skibo 2015). Replicas of vessels from Mont Lassois and the Heuneburg have been created at the Material Culture Studies Laboratory at the University of Leiden. A series of experiments was carried out in order to replicate various domestic activities such as food preparation, the storing of pots and cooking. The use-wear traces created during the experiments as well as observed on the archaeological ceramics were analyzed by means of a stereomicroscope. Microscopic pictures were taken of the use-wear traces, and the vessels have been drawn to record the traces, in order to establish a vast reference collection. In order to get a better understanding of pottery use and the accumulation of wear on vessels, the use-wear traces on the experimental vessels were compared to the archaeological material from Mont Lassois and the Heuneburg. It was determined that similar use-wear traces could be observed both on the experimental as well as on the archaeological material. Use-wear analysis can provide more detailed information about the actual use of pottery in the past. Therefore, an important step in the chaîne opératoire, or life biography, of pottery can be studied. To conclude, in a multidisciplinary research use-wear analysis can greatly add to existing analytical methods, providing specific information on the handling of vessels and their corresponding gestures.Show less
Animal remains that were discovered in cremation- or inhumation graves dating to the prehistory are often interpreted as food offerings for the deceased. Animals are still categorized in human...Show moreAnimal remains that were discovered in cremation- or inhumation graves dating to the prehistory are often interpreted as food offerings for the deceased. Animals are still categorized in human-subject and animal-object categories that interpret animals as an addition to the live of the prehistoric people instead of living beings. Interpreting animal remains from graves with this approach limits the possibility that animals were buried other than food offerings. This traditional view has been questioned by scholars such as Russell and Hill. Their research has concluded that many prehistoric habitants perceived objects in their universe as living and dynamic agents able to make independent and deliberate decisions. Russell has made a subdivision between different animal find categories found in graves. With these categories, he rejects the pre-assumption that animals were only used for their nutritional value and always placed as a food offering in the grave. This thesis tests the approach from Russell and Hill by analyzing faunal remains that were found in the Bronze- and Iron Age graves in the Netherlands. The aim of this thesis is to research if there is a different perspective on how prehistoric people perceived and used animals. For both the faunal remains from the Bronze Age as for the remains from the Iron Age a database is constructed. The faunal assemblage is thereafter analysed and categorized in the following five categories: food offerings (bones from meaty parts of the animal), ornamental grave goods (decorated or perforated objects and hunting trophies), implements (tools), individuals (complete animal skeletons) and the last category contains other uncategorized finds. An overview of animals that were found in Bronze- and Iron Age settlements were presented in this thesis. Animals found at settlements in the Bronze- and Iron Age consist mainly of livestock animals, such as cattle, sheep/goats and pigs. In Bronze Age settlements game animals were found often, indicating that these animals were still part of the diet. In Iron Age settlements game animals were found sporadically, indicating that these were not frequently eaten. Various animal species were discovered in both Bronze- and Iron Age graves. Animals that were found in Bronze Age graves were cattle, sheep/goat, pig, horse, dog, deer, fish, bird and brown bear. Animals that were found in Iron Age graves were cattle, sheep/goat, pig, horse, deer, bird, fish and marten. The results of the comparative analysis between the Bronze- and Iron Age animal remains prove that there is a changing perception of animals demonstrated between the Bronze- and Iron Age. During the Bronze Age, animals were frequently buried as ornaments and individuals. Animals that were buried as individuals were treated as if they were humans. Food offerings to the deceased was not often observed. This could be indicating that some Bronze Age people formed an emotional bond with animals, which is in sharp contrast with the traditional view that animals were only held due to their nutritional value. In the Iron Age on the other hand animals were mainly buried offered as food and less frequently as ornamental- and implements or individuals, which can be interpreted as attempts by family members or friends to ensure that the deceased would not suffer from food shortage in the afterlife. The Dutch Bronze- and Iron Age faunal assemblage indicates a shift in the perception of animals between the Bronze- and Iron Age from a perception that allowed people to bond emotionally with animals to a perception of animals that is focused on their ritual and nutritional value.Show less
Loom weights have been found all over the world and there are clear regional distinctions in shape and size, but a few types like conical weights seem to be used repeatedly in most regions. In the...Show moreLoom weights have been found all over the world and there are clear regional distinctions in shape and size, but a few types like conical weights seem to be used repeatedly in most regions. In the European Iron Age, a new type of loom weight is introduced with a flat triangular shape and perforations through the corners and often through the centre of the weight. The introduction of this new type of weight is reason for a big discussion. The generally accepted hypothesis on the function of triangular loom weights comes from Loewe (1971, 35, footnote 66), in which he describes how the triangular weights with three perforations were used to secure a bundle of warp threads, making it easier to fabricate longer pieces of textile and rolling the textile up for storing purposes. This presumably gave the triangular weights an advantage over the earlier conical and pyramidal weights. However, some archaeologists disapprove of this assessment of function, they presume a function as net sinker or spanner for hides is more likable. The research of this thesis shows that these objects show a large number of characteristics that are purely necessary for the function as loom weight. Therefore, a primary function as loom weight is accepted.Show less
Iron Age cremation graveyards are a relatively rare phenomenon in the Netherlands and there is a general lack of understanding of demographic data based on osteological analyses of these graveyards...Show moreIron Age cremation graveyards are a relatively rare phenomenon in the Netherlands and there is a general lack of understanding of demographic data based on osteological analyses of these graveyards. Cremation analysis of these graveyards is not done on a consistent basis and osteological information is generally lacking. In the research, the Middle to Late Iron Age graveyard from Panningen-Loo (Netherlands) has been analysed and compared to other graveyard within the Meuse-Demer-Scheldt (MDS) region in the southern Netherlands. Furthermore, a GIS-analysis has been carried out to analyse locations of graves, grave types and demographics within the graveyard. The osteological analysis was carried out using standard macroscopic methods of analysis for cremated remains. With the help of a literature study and a GIS-analysis, comparisons in and between graveyards have been made. Several statistical calculations were ran to test the significance of weight and fragmentation between demographics and grave types. In total, 31 graves were found which contained 33 individuals. Grave types following the scheme of Hiddink (2003) were proposed: sixteen graves were of type A. Ten were of type B. Seven graves were of type C. The grave types also differed in other terms: weight, fragmentation and location were different for the proposed grave types. The weight of the graves varied between 0,1 to 3241 grams, with an average of 611 grams. The graveyard contained three adult females, three possible females, two indeterminate adults, one possible male, five adult males and six subadults. Fragmentation of the remains was high. Four individuals were found with no or marginal amounts of cranial fragments. In comparison to other graveyards within the MDS area, several graveyards match Panningen-Loo in multiple osteological and archaeological aspects. Panningen Stokx, Weert Laarveld and Weert Molenakkerdreef are all highly matching in most aspects. By carrying out this study, progress had been made in aiding the understanding of Iron Age graveyards and indicating the usefulness of a complete osteological analysis of cremated remains.Show less
Archaeological research of the Iron Age (800 - 12 BC) at the Maashorst until now has been mainly focussed on the ritual landscape. Much information has been gathered on the burial mounds and...Show moreArchaeological research of the Iron Age (800 - 12 BC) at the Maashorst until now has been mainly focussed on the ritual landscape. Much information has been gathered on the burial mounds and urnfields such as Oss-Vorstengraf, Oss-Zevenbergen and Uden-Slabroekse heide. Remarkably, these grave fields contain relatively many 'rich' graves dating from the Early Iron Age (800 – 500 BC), where people of a noteworthy status had been buried. However, there is not much information available on where these people actually lived. Theory on how the settlement system of the Iron Age functioned has been researched in the past. Based on the idea of wandering farmsteads by Schinkel in 1998 the theoretical framework of the Iron Age settlement system was extended by several scholars on which the emphasis differs, but the practical and spatial division of the settlement system remains rather similar. The Iron Age settlement system consists of dispersed ‘wandering’ farmsteads that are situated within a celtic field system and within close vicinity of the burial site. This theoretical framework is extensively used for current research on Iron Age settlement systems. Therefore, the research question is: In what way are the existing theories on Iron Age settlement systems of use when researching the possibilities of habitation at the expressively rich burials of the Maashorst? Evidence for Iron Age settlements at the Maashorst is collected and mapped by using data on actual excavated archaeological sites, data collected by using Archis (ceramic finds and other archaeological traces of Iron Age habitation) and the analysis of two sites that were excavated by amateur archaeologists but were never examined any further. The collected evidence show a clear pattern of habitation on the edges of the Maashorst and on the sandy ridge at the present-day town of Heesch. Remarkably, the burial sites with rich burials are situated relatively remotely from this evidence. Together with the evidence of palynological research on the physical landscape at all of the burial sites at the Maashorst, it becomes clear that the burial grounds were not situated within close vicinity of the settlements and were situated in an open landscape of heath surrounded by forest. Therefore, it is suggested that the settlements at the Maashorst were part of a cultural landscape that was continually and intensively occupied. This habitation existed because of the specific physical features of the landscape and was reused and reordered on the basis of what the preceding generations left behind. This while following the lines of an increasingly structured and demarcated new perception of the landscape. In this way emphasizing the Iron Age settlement system on the physical and social meaning of the landscape and in so doing creating a more useful framework for future research at the Maashorst.Show less
Studies of food and drink in archaeology are persistently focused on consumption and ingredient components (Parker Pearson 2003, 3-4). Notably, alcohol studies have often favoured identifying...Show moreStudies of food and drink in archaeology are persistently focused on consumption and ingredient components (Parker Pearson 2003, 3-4). Notably, alcohol studies have often favoured identifying ingredients as representative of a large and complex sociocultural system in producing such a visceral product (McGovern 2009, 42-46). This interpretation simplifies the technical complexities behind alcohol production, and marginalises the sociality of technology throughout. Where it has been argued this cannot be understood due to the perishable nature of alcoholic products in the archaeological record (Hayashida 2008), instead distinct ‘signatures’ on material surfaces may be observed that can infer methods, techniques, and practices involved in the dynamic process of alcohol production. The role that use-wear analysis can have in establishing the technical gestures within the alcohol production chaîne opératoire presents a promising solution to cope with such an issue when used in conjunction with other bodies of evidence. The physical impacts of fermentation upon material surfaces have been suggested as one possible signature that could be observed through use-wear analysis (Skibo 2015, 194). Due to the prominence of ceramics in the archaeological record, this has been largely taken as true in most scales and contexts based on ethnographic data (cf. Arthur 2002; 2003). In this thesis, an application of ceramic use-wear analysis for understanding technical gesture within alcohol production is explored. In order to establish this, a series of experiments was carried out modelled on the ceramic assemblage recovered from the Early Iron Age site of Heuneburg, southern Germany, to understand if such use-wear traces associated with the production of honey-wine could be plausible signatures for alcohol production. In turn, the implications of these for understanding alcohol production at the site were explored. Beyond assumptions on use and action, this methodology interprets traces as actions, motions, and technical gestures in the production of alcohol. Equally then, why technical gesture and attempts to observe it are such a vital aspect in researching the archaeology of alcohol is also discussed.Show less
This thesis endeavoured to investigate whether ardmarks could be used as a proxy for field systems in prehistoric archaeology. It considered the assumption that the crystallization of field...Show moreThis thesis endeavoured to investigate whether ardmarks could be used as a proxy for field systems in prehistoric archaeology. It considered the assumption that the crystallization of field structure occurred in the Middle Bronze Age. To discover whether this was the case, this thesis tried to investigate whether social organization was also evident in the earlier field systems. The main question was how did social organization change from the Middle Neolithic to the Early Iron Age? To answer this, this thesis used ardmarks as a proxy for field systems. One of the main uses of ardmarks in current archaeological debate is to provide evidence for intensification. This thesis instead looked at the demarcations, organization of ardmarks, field systems, and how the ardmarks are currently documented to try to discover changes in field systems in prehistory. This study included 28 case studies ranging from the Middle Neolithic to the Early Iron Age. Two types of evidence were found that describe a change in social organization and therefore tenural function of fields in different phases of the prehistory. The first was the layout of the fields in the landscape and the second was the intensification of these fields. The Late Neolithic and the Early Bronze Age fields were set on the perimeters of landscape features; slope and tops of dunes were important focal points for the organization of these fields. The ardmarks show a pattern of parallel and perpendicular furrows to the slope. This emphasizes the natural landscape as a focal point for these fields and non-demarcated fields. Due to the local changes in natural landscape features, one could argue that these fields were set for the organization of the local settlement rather than a larger inter-organizational structure. However, in the Middle Bronze Age a shift of the layout of fields towards the lower places within the local landscape can be seen. Moreover, an increasing amount of enclosures in the form of ditch systems marks that this shift towards the lower lying areas was deliberate. However, in many case studies it is evident that the natural landscape was still influenced the layout of these fields. It is only in the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age that the local relief of the landscape is disregarded for the structure of field systems. This is evident in the more dominant structuring of fields systems for inter-organizational purposes. However, this indicates that tenure was practiced in the Late Neolithic in a more local settlement scale, and that from the Middle Bronze Age it changed towards a larger organization than that of a single settlement organizational perspective. Therefore, we see a clear change in the use of fields in social organization on different landscape levels. In the end, this thesis showed that the organization of field systems changes considerably in chronology but also regionally. However, one should question if these field systems are a direct relation to tenure and chiefdoms, or rather changes in techniques and social organizational views of the land.Show less
This thesis treats the Iron Age farmstead in Dutch archaeological research. The farmstead is commonly applied as interpretation method in archaeological research. However, the information that is...Show moreThis thesis treats the Iron Age farmstead in Dutch archaeological research. The farmstead is commonly applied as interpretation method in archaeological research. However, the information that is gained from applying the farmstead to interpret archaeological features is poor. The reason for this is that the farmstead as a concept lacks definition. In order to understand the concept of the farmstead, a model is proposed in this study. This model, the process related farmstead model (PRF-model), is designed to gain insight in the processes influencing the presence of the farmstead. The PRF-model is based upon analogical reasoning, using data from pre-modern farmsteads. The basic principle of this model is that the farmstead is not a static entity but a dynamic place, which presence and shape depends on its agricultural purpose. The purpose of applying this model is to provide additional argumentation that can be used to interpret archaeological features. The PRF-model is tested upon two case-studies. These are the sites Raalte – Jonge Raan and Zutphen – Looërenk. This analysis showed that the farmstead in both sites greatly differ, because their agricultural purpose differs. I emphasize that there is a need for models to be applied on the archaeological record, so that a more credible understanding of the past can be obtained and new research methods can be proposed. This is necessary in order to get rid of the outdated and uncritically applied interpretation methods of the archaeological features that make up the farmstead.Show less
Research master thesis | Archaeology (research) (MA/MSc)
closed access
Archaeologists still have a lot to learn about the mortuary rituals of cremated human remains from the Bronze and Iron Age. Even though a large sample of burials from these periods contain cremated...Show moreArchaeologists still have a lot to learn about the mortuary rituals of cremated human remains from the Bronze and Iron Age. Even though a large sample of burials from these periods contain cremated remains, the main research focus has been on inhumated remains. Only recently, the importance of cremated remains became clear and the possibilities of investigating cremated human remains started to be explored. Yet, a lot of information might still be derived from these remains. With this thesis, the importance of careful and detailed excavation is studied through an examination of a human cremation burial from the Uddeler Heegde, Apeldoorn. This is done with the aim to study the funerary practices of the burial to its most extent. First, the concept of mortuary rituals is prospected through a modern (European) perspective. The excavation and determination of the case study burial are described in detail, providing a transparent study. By using concepts as personhood, social persona and the dramatis personae theory of Hertz, the relational identities of the deceased are studied. Hypotheses are used to define what mortuary practices could have been possible and which are rather implausible. Overall, this study demonstrates the additional possibilities acquired by high quality excavation of human cremation burials.Show less
