The research subject of this thesis is the Continuity of Christianity in Jordan during the rise of the Islam. Christianity itself has a long and complex history in Jordan that can be dated back to...Show moreThe research subject of this thesis is the Continuity of Christianity in Jordan during the rise of the Islam. Christianity itself has a long and complex history in Jordan that can be dated back to the early days of the religion. The subject of this thesis is based on an excavation of a church in Udhruh (Jordan) that was converted into a mosque; the church showed signs of being in longer Christian use during the Muslim reign. This inspirited the will to research Christianity and its continuity in Jordan because of the assumption that Christianity disappeared or stopped when the Islamic reign begun. The purpose of this research was to provide future researchers with a clear story about this transition and providing certain products than can be used for further research. The products that resulted from this research are: a database that consists of information about the churches, multiple spreading maps consisting of all the collected churches, a spreading map consisting of the churches that stayed in use after 630/640 AD, a spreading map that consists of the churches converted into mosques, a spreading map that shows the ‘stayed in use’ churches and the converted churches combined, a table that consists of the collected bishops and a table that consists of the collected monasteries. The results and information about the research goal were retrieved during an extensive literature research. Before starting this research the amount of 7 research questions were formulated: 1. How many churches were present in Jordan before the Islamic reign? 2. How many churches were present in Jordan during the Islamic reign? 3. How did the organizational structure of Christianity develop during the emergence of the Islam? 4. How is it noticeable that a church is converted into a mosque? 5. Which churches in Jordan show signs of being converted into mosques? 6. Which churches in Jordan have been partly used as monasteries? 7. What kind of archaeological remains are proof of the conversion of churches into mosques? The 7 research questions were used as handles in answering the main question: What is the continuity of Christianity in Jordan during the rise of the Islam? During this research 173 churches were collected and researched. The number of 100-165 churches were present before the start of the Islamic reign and the amount of 33 churches were present in Jordan during the Islamic reign. This can indicate that the amount and therefore use of churches did decline during the rise of the Islam. In addition to that seven churches were discovered that showed signs of being converted into a mosque by closing of the apse and/or installing a mihrab (a nice in the wall that shows which way to face during prayer). In the early stages of the research several bishops were collected during the literature study, the amount of 10 bishops were counted in Jordan. When researching the location that the bishops were seated, the information could be used as additional proof for an interesting statement that Udhruh became the new capital of Jordan and Petra became a place of exile. The time of the end of bishopric can also be suggested of being during the time of the rise of the Islam, this is because the seat of the bishop moved to Udhruh and when the church of Udhruh became converted into a mosque it can be suggested that the bishopric also ended there. Furthermore, none of the churches that were collected during the early stage of the research were partly used as monasteries, the monasteries that were found during the research all showed signs of being a separate building from the churches. Some information that was gathered during the research does suggest that Christianity did end or declined very rapidly when the Islam started to rise; the decline in churches, the end of bishopric and the converting of churches into mosques can be seen as ‘proof’. However, the opposite can also be suggested when taking into account the signs that Christianity was still practised during the rise of the Islam; several Christian texts were found at the church in Udhruh that indicate this, new churches were built and 33 churches stayed in use. Together with the statements of several researchers that Christianity continued and even throve during the Islamic rise and the suggestion by for example an inscription that marks a renovation of a church during the Muslim rule, according to researchers it appeared that Christians and Muslims lived peacefully, side by side during the rise of the Islam in the country of Jordan. The results could spark a discussion, this is because the results are based on several English literature sources and only one French source however the native tongue of Jordanians is Arabic and French. More of these publications have not been taking into consideration because of the fact that it was hard to find because the titles of these publications would have been in those two languages and therefore, not that easy to find when these are not languages that are mastered. Furthermore, when these publications would have been found there also would have been a need to find a translator that could help with decipher of the contests of these publications. In addition to the previous statement it could also be discussed if the result that was given during this research can be seen as a final result for the overall subject. This can be argued because the subject is broad and consists of researching a whole country, this takes time. The recommendation is to research this subject in further extent and to perceive the result that was given in this document as a start in answering this big and complex subject.Show less
Every year, Morocco sends hundreds of imams to different countries in Europe during Ramadan to support the local Moroccan community. They are sent by the Foundation Hassan II, a foundation...Show moreEvery year, Morocco sends hundreds of imams to different countries in Europe during Ramadan to support the local Moroccan community. They are sent by the Foundation Hassan II, a foundation safeguarding the cultural and religious identity of the diaspora. This research focuses on this institution and examines the ways in which religion is manifested in foreign policy in relation to the diaspora in the Netherlands. This is done by analyzing a national policy called the Stratégie Nationale en faveur des Marocains du Monde by the Ministère chargé des Marocains Résidant à l’Etranger et des Affaires de la Migration. In the case of the Netherlands, religion is mainly manifested by sending religious personnel and materials. In general, Morocco emphasizes a return transnationalism within its policy by motivating contributing to the country’s development, but also return to Morocco. This return transnationalism was first visible in the terminology that Morocco used to refer to the migrants which were underlinging the economic purposes of the migration. This later evolved into a term that also emphasized cultural and religious elements. Furthermore, various institutions were found to represent the interests of the diaspora, including the Fondation, but this system is not flawless because their cooperation can be ineffective. The study also covers the invention of “Moroccan Islam” as a colonial construct and the Moroccan interpretation of Islam that consist of four pillars. These pillars are also visible in the Strategy for example by emphasizing the Maliki Madhhab or moderate nature of the Moroccan interpretation of Islam.Show less
Een overzicht van de Marokkaanse Nederlanders en de veranderingen in hun religie. De ontwikkeling van de traditioneel Marokkaanse Islam naar een Salafistische.
This thesis compares two novels in their portrayal of Muslimas. The two novels that are discussed are Salman Rushdie's The Satanic Verses and Nadeem Aslam's Maps for Lost Lovers. The thesis argues...Show moreThis thesis compares two novels in their portrayal of Muslimas. The two novels that are discussed are Salman Rushdie's The Satanic Verses and Nadeem Aslam's Maps for Lost Lovers. The thesis argues that Rushdie applies inaccurate representations of Islam and Muslimas in his novel. Moreover, his novel misuses Ayesha's historical figure and feminizes several different aspects of the religion. It concludes that Rushdie often writes about women, but never from the perspective of these women. Aslam's novel, on the other hand, allocates a lot more time to the female characters and their perspectives. However, it must also be noted that Aslam's portrayal of Islam - and along with that, Muslimas - is heavily Pakistani-oriented, in its most conservative form. Lastly, evident similarities and differences between the two novels were discussed. Here, the thesis concludes that both novels brought about a similar societal effect - namely heightening feelings of Islamophobia -, despite their different approaches to the subject.Show less
In 2009 during the excavation of Udhruh, a Byzantine church in southern Jordan, an ensemble of fifteen limestone blocks were found, out of situ. They featured symbols, which have yet to be...Show moreIn 2009 during the excavation of Udhruh, a Byzantine church in southern Jordan, an ensemble of fifteen limestone blocks were found, out of situ. They featured symbols, which have yet to be researched. It is important to pin-point the original locations of the blocks as this will enlarge our understanding of the church and because the location of the blocks could also assist in understanding the engraved symbols, which could be other than Christian in nature. The church and attached town maintained an autonomous Christian community while being controlled by multiple Islamic powers for at least six centuries. This raises questions relating to the presupposed tenuous Muslim-Christian relations in the region. The Levant and Middle East as a whole have long been described as historically unstable as a result of religious tension, but the existence of the church provides a counterargument against this notion. The pin-pointing of the location of the blocks has been done through 3D-analysis, in which the surface condition, the orientation and the curvature of the blocks were determined. The symbols have been analysed by method of 3D analysis and a literature study, focussing on early Christian symbolism. The research concludes that the blocks are divided into a more homogeneous group, the “true” blocks, and three miscellaneous blocks. The true blocks have similar dimensions and attributes. Analysis points to an elevated, semi-suspended original location within a straight wall, probably in the aisles or nave of the core basilica, which is the oldest part of the church. Another object displayed clear curvature and was determined to be part of an archway. The symbols on the blocks are without a doubt Christian in nature, but not all early Christian. The geometrical pattern have been determined to likely be decorative, instead of symbolic. Whereas the shell and the crosses hold symbolic meaning. Out of the three types of crosses, two are also linked to the Crusader period. This could provide evidence for the continued use of the church during the Abbasid, Fatimid and Ayyubid periods, an epoch of which still not much is known concerning Udhruh.Show less
Het sultanaat Banten kende na de stichting in de zestiende eeuw een turbulente geschiedenis die zich liet kenmerken door interne conflicten binnen de bovenlaag van de Bantense bevolking in een...Show moreHet sultanaat Banten kende na de stichting in de zestiende eeuw een turbulente geschiedenis die zich liet kenmerken door interne conflicten binnen de bovenlaag van de Bantense bevolking in een periode voordat de VOC een grote rol kreeg in Zuidoost-Azië. Deze scriptie gaat op zoek naar de oorzaak achter de interne conflicten en hierbij zet de spelers in Banten en hun motivaties uiteen. De Bantense conflicten uitten zich langs de lijnen van steeds terugkomende tegenstellingen tussen de havenstad en deShow less
The exceptional stability of the Moroccan monarchy during turbulent periods such as the protests of the F20 movement and the protests of the Hirak movement is intriguing. During the Arab Spring,...Show moreThe exceptional stability of the Moroccan monarchy during turbulent periods such as the protests of the F20 movement and the protests of the Hirak movement is intriguing. During the Arab Spring, the monarchy was the only country in North Africa that has kept the same head of state. Researchers are inclined to explain the stability of Morocco by analyzing the political strategies of the state and the monarchy. But what is often overlooked in the study of the Arab Spring in Morocco is the people. The Moroccan people remained relatively calm. The protests in Morocco were not as widespread as the protests in the rest of North Africa and the Middle East. In addition, the protesters' demands were aimed at reform, not revolution. How come the people of Morocco had different demands than the rest of North Africa? When considering the exceptional stability of the country, the country's particular characteristics must also be considered. Because not only is Morocco the only monarchy in North Africa; the country also has an extra religious dimension, because it is an emirate. To what extent did the king's religious title play a role in limiting the demonstrations in Morocco? To what extent has the king's religious legitimacy been used as a strategy to maintain peace in troubled times? And to what extent has the media been used as an instrument for this religious legitimacy? This research will examine to what extent the above-mentioned issues have had an impact on the demonstrators during the Moroccan spring. A content analysis of newsarticles from the Arab Spring period will be conducted. In addition, interviews will be conducted with protesters.Show less
Rising numbers of religious extremism are an increasing concern in Western Europe. As Western Europe is secular, and secular ideology seeks to diminish the influence of religion on society, this...Show moreRising numbers of religious extremism are an increasing concern in Western Europe. As Western Europe is secular, and secular ideology seeks to diminish the influence of religion on society, this rise is peculiar. It raises the question why religious extremism is on the rise in Western Europe despite its secular environment. Evidence suggests there is a causal link between religious extremism and secularism. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to investigate such a causal relation between secularism and religious extremism in Western Europe. To rule out other explanations, this study identified two rival explanations: A cultural disconnect and geopolitical factors. The validity of all three explanations was tested through a case study analysis of France, the Netherlands and Belgium. The results concluded that the cultural disconnect and the geopolitical explanation are not correct. However, the study concluded that certain forms of secularism lead to a rise of religious extremism in Western Europe. The cases demonstrate the mechanism behind this: States enforce disproportionately strict secular policies through a strict separation between the public sphere and the private sphere, and a positive bias towards the pre-existing dominant religion. These two factors trigger reactive religiosity, leading to religious extremism. Conclusively, disproportionate secularism plays a pivotal role in the rise of religious extremism in Western Europe.Show less
Freedom of movement is a human right. Yet, one might question to what extent certain human rights, specifically freedom of movement, are protected for all human beings. Even though liberal...Show moreFreedom of movement is a human right. Yet, one might question to what extent certain human rights, specifically freedom of movement, are protected for all human beings. Even though liberal societies tend to offer their citizens freedom of movement in order to protect the aforementioned human right, this appears to be mainly important for one’s own society’s citizens, rather than assuring that this human right is safeguarded for every human being. As a result, some passports already determine the national's “unfreedom” of movement. This research will focus on the role of religion, and how this could possibly influence the power of passports and freedom of movement, as seen with the Muslim Ban. Hence, this thesis will research whether there exists such a thing as a “Muslim” passport by comparing the passport power of Jordan and Cameroon.Show less
This thesis examines the views of Khomeini, Shariati and Motahhari on several aspects of womanhood such as gender equality and marriage. Furthermore, it examines which of these ideas have been...Show moreThis thesis examines the views of Khomeini, Shariati and Motahhari on several aspects of womanhood such as gender equality and marriage. Furthermore, it examines which of these ideas have been translated into the constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran. By understanding which religious figures have been influential and which laws dictate the lives of women, I have tried to understand what is expected from women and what their position in society is. The constitution of Iran was an important source to understand the framework in which the position of women is decided. A critical review of the ideas of the three religious figures show that there are several problems with the translation of their ideas and the notion of equality as presented in the constitution into practice. Women in fact do not have the same rights as their male counterparts as the constitution states. Examples of this are the mandatory hijab and unequal divorce rights. Furthermore, there is a lot of intentional vagueness in the constitution in order to limit the rights of women. The thesis concludes that it has been mostly the ideas of Khomeini and Motahhari have been implemented into the constitution. Shariati’s ideas, that can be categorized as more modern and socialist than the other two religious figures, have been implemented to a lesser extent. Khomeini, Motahhari and Shariati all agree men and women have equal rights. However, the implementation of this into practice is problematic.Show less
De term renegaten wordt gebruikt om de vroegmoderne Europese bekeerlingen tot de islam mee te duiden. Zij zijn typische figuren in de mediterrane geschiedenis van de zestiende tot de achttiende...Show moreDe term renegaten wordt gebruikt om de vroegmoderne Europese bekeerlingen tot de islam mee te duiden. Zij zijn typische figuren in de mediterrane geschiedenis van de zestiende tot de achttiende eeuw’ en waren over de gehele Noord-Afrikaanse kust te vinden. De renegaten konden, door hun kennis van zowel de christelijke als de islamitische wereld, een belangrijke diplomatieke rol op zich nemen en waren vaak van cruciaal belang bij het vrijkopen van Nederlandse gevangenen en slaven in Noord-Afrika. De bekeerlingen werkten nauw samen met verschillende Nederlandse handelsvertegenwoordigers of diplomatieke agenten en vormden de onmisbare schakel tussen Noord-Afrikaanse sultanaten en de Staten-Generaal. Ondanks deze fundamentele hulp konden de renegaten, zo leert de literatuur ons, wegens hun bekering in hun vaderland nauwelijks op begrip of tolerantie rekenen. Bij terugkeer naar de Republiek stond hen alles behalve en warm welkom te wachten doordat ze werden gezien en behandeld als uitschot en landverraders. Onmisbaar maar tegelijkertijd ook ongewenst: de literatuur schetst een ingewikkeld en paradoxaal beeld van de renegaat op het vroegmoderne toneel. Dit negatieve stereotype valt namelijk niet te rijmen met de functies die renegaten in de realiteit bekleedden. Een verklaring zou kunnen zijn dat de beeldvorming rondom de bekeerlingen onderhevig was aan verandering. Hierdoor zouden renegaten al een belangrijke diplomatieke positie hebben veiliggesteld voordat de Nederlandse kijk op hen verslechterde. De huidige literatuur geeft nog geen antwoord op de vraag of die verandering er inderdaad was, dus dit onderzoek stelt zich ten doel dat te onderzoeken.Show less
