Candi Borobudur is one of the most prominent ‘heritage sites’ in Indonesia. Since its ‘rediscovery’ by Dutch colonists, researchers have been using Western approaches to gain insight in the...Show moreCandi Borobudur is one of the most prominent ‘heritage sites’ in Indonesia. Since its ‘rediscovery’ by Dutch colonists, researchers have been using Western approaches to gain insight in the function, surroundings and overall significance of the candi. In doing so, many scholars have overlooked the Buddhist theological aspects that demonstrate the existence of a cultural landscape in the form of a representative mandala. Within this cultural landscape, local villagers had long maintained a self-sufficient way of life that was both environmentally friendly and economically diverse. Nevertheless, the Dutch East Indies government prescribed that Candi Borobudur be a ‘monument’ and appropriated it as part of Dutch imperial legacy. This narrow understanding is the basis of the ‘heritagisation’ of Candi Borobudur, manifested in its spatial reduction and the omission of its intangible features. After the Republic of Indonesia’s independence, the New Order regime continued to ‘heritagise’ the candi by conducting an exhaustive restoration in the 1970s. An example of ‘crypto-colonialism’ and ‘authorised heritage’, the restoration culminated in Candi Borobudur’s inscription in UNESCO’s World Heritage Site List in 1991. According to the official Indonesian narrative, the candi is a ‘monument’ that epitomises Indonesian cultural and historical wealth. Inspired by the republic’s Pancasila ideology, such a narrative is to instill a sense of ownership of the candi among Indonesians. Ironically, the process of ‘heritagisation’ of Candi Borobudur has entailed the co-optation of obsolete legislation and forced evictions of local communities. Given that the candi is a Buddhist site in a Muslim-majority country, its religious meaning has also become increasingly foreign. Overall, the ‘heritagisation’ of Candi Borobudur demonstrates both a combination of and a contention between ‘colonial’ and nationalist practices.Show less
The Islamic pilgrimage, the Hajj, is known as one of the biggest movement of people in the world. This annual event has long become the meeting point of Muslims from various places. In the late...Show moreThe Islamic pilgrimage, the Hajj, is known as one of the biggest movement of people in the world. This annual event has long become the meeting point of Muslims from various places. In the late 19th and early 20th century, the face of hajj changed significantly due to the advance in technology, opening of transportation routes and involvement of colonial government in conducting the hajj. The number of hajj participants from the Dutch East Indies, which were also known as the haji jawa increased greatly, including the female pilgrims, which made up 20-30% of the total pilgrims from the region. This thesis puts gender and colonial perspective together to study the female pilgrims and hajjah from the Dutch East Indies in comparison to the male counterparts. This thesis addresses the issue of how the Dutch colonial government perceived the female pilgrims and hajjah from the Dutch East Indies, such as what kind of themes appeared in the depiction of female pilgrims in the archives, where and when the female pilgrims were mentioned or not mentioned and why, and how it eventually relates to the production of knowledge about it. Contrary to the popular beliefs that the pilgrims were all male, there were many female pilgrims and many of them stayed in Mecca as moekimers. Women were mainly depicted as wife and companion, and victim of violence and slavery. They were underplayed in the archives and had never been under the spotlight in comparison to male pilgrims which were regarded as very important due to the possibility of being subversive and rebellious. The downplayed depiction of female pilgrims in the archives is continued until today in the historiography of hajj.Show less
