English and Farsi are languages that maintain a plosive voicing contrast in word-final position, unlike Dutch, a language that neutralizes this contrast in word-final position, while maintaining it...Show moreEnglish and Farsi are languages that maintain a plosive voicing contrast in word-final position, unlike Dutch, a language that neutralizes this contrast in word-final position, while maintaining it in word-initial and word-medial position. With the use of an online questionnaire, I wanted to find out whether native speakers of Farsi are better at categorizing the English word-final plosive voicing contrast than native speakers of Dutch, because native speakers of Farsi have native-language experience with the same contrast in the same position. The results show that both the Dutch and the Farsi group were relatively successful in distinguishing this contrast, but the Farsi group categorized it significantly better. The results of the Dutch group are in line with previous literature that indicate that perception of an L2-contrast is supported by native-language experience with the same contrast in other positions. Additionally, the results of the Farsi group imply that perception of an L2-contrast becomes even better when there is native-language experience with the same contrast in the same position.Show less
The aim of this case study is to perform a multifaceted examination of L2 communication accommodation, investigating a single speaker’s syntactical, lexical and pronunciational choices, in order to...Show moreThe aim of this case study is to perform a multifaceted examination of L2 communication accommodation, investigating a single speaker’s syntactical, lexical and pronunciational choices, in order to better understand how Howard Giles’ Communication Accommodation Theory might be used to examine and explain copying behaviour in nonnative speech. The speaker at the centre of the case study is a Dutch learner of English, and she is observed in conversation with three different interlocutors: one British (interlocutor A), one Dutch (interlocutor B) and one American (interlocutor C). Among the results were three notable shifts in the speaker’s speech behaviour; two were related to pronunciation and concerned her realisation of certain vowels and the postvocalic /r/, the final one was a shift in register or choice of words. There were no instances of accommodation found in the other examined variables. This shows how for an individual, there may be some areas of speech in which communication accommodation will occur more rapidly than in others.Show less
Das Thema dieser Arbeit ist intersprachlicher Einfluss bei Tertiärsprachenlernen. Dieses Thema wird sowohl praktisch (anhand der Ergebnisse durchgeführter Tests in den Bereichen der Syntax und der...Show moreDas Thema dieser Arbeit ist intersprachlicher Einfluss bei Tertiärsprachenlernen. Dieses Thema wird sowohl praktisch (anhand der Ergebnisse durchgeführter Tests in den Bereichen der Syntax und der Lexik) als theoretisch (anhand anderer veröffentlichter Studien im Fachgebiet) ausgearbeitet. Der erste Abschnitt bietet eine Einführung und definiert wichtige Begriffe zum Thema. Eine Tertiärsprache ist in dieser Arbeit jede Fremdsprache, die nach der ersten Zweitsprache angeeignet wird. Eine relevante Frage ist die nach dem Unterschied zwischen second und third language acquisition; das Faktorenmodell von Hufeisen bietet hier eine mögliche Erklärung. Im zweiten Abschnitt steht das Thema cross linguistic influence (die in der internationalen Literatur übliche Bezeichnung für Transfer oder intersprachlichen Einfluss) im Mittelpunkt. In den letzten Jahrzehnten sind verschiedene Modelle vorgeschlagen worden, um die Wirkung von Transfer zu beschreiben. Drei einflussreiche Theorien werden näher erklärt: (a) das CEM (Cumulative Enhancement Model) betrachtet alle vorher erworbenen oder gelernten Sprachen als mögliche Transferquelle für die Tertiärsprache; (b) die LSFH (L2 Status Factor-Hypothese) sieht hier eine privilegierte Rolle für die Zweitsprache wegen deren besonderen Status; (c) das TPM (Typology Primacy Model) hält den (psycho-)typologischen Abstand für den entscheidenden Faktor beim Auftreten von intersprachlichem Einfluss. Der dritte Abschnitt stellt die Methodologie der bei einer Gruppe von niederländischen Deutschlernenden durchgeführten Untersuchung dar. Die Probanden haben Englisch als L2 und lassen sich betreffs ihrer Tertiärsprache auf zwei Sprachniveaus einstufen: GER-Niveau A1/A2 bzw. A2/B1. Der vorgelegte Fragebogen ist ein grammaticality judgement task und besteht aus zwei Teilen, einem syntaktischen und einem lexikalischen. Im syntaktischen Teil wird intersprachlicher Transfer bei der Reihenfolge im deutschen Satz untersucht; die deutsche und die niederländische Sprache unterscheiden sich in dieser Hinsicht vom Englischen mit seiner strikten Subjekt-Verb-Objekt-Struktur. Die Hypothese ist, dass hier Transfer aus der L2 (Englisch) auftreten wird. Der lexikalische Teil hat feste Verbindungen von Verben mit Präpositionen zum Thema; es gibt mehrere Verben, die sich im Deutschen und im Niederländischen mit den entsprechenden Präpositionen verbinden, im Englischen jedoch eine andere Präposition brauchen. Die Hypothese lautet, dass hier ebenfalls Transfer aus der L2 stattfindet. Im vierten Abschnitt werden die Ergebnisse der Untersuchung dargestellt und anhand anderer wissenschaftlicher Studien im Fachgebiet diskutiert. Die Ergebnisse weisen im Allgemeinen auf Transfer aus der L2 hin und bestätigen deshalb beide Hypothesen und somit die LSFH. Trotzdem gibt es erhebliche Unterschiede zwischen den Niveaugruppen und den Sprachbereichen. Die Ergebnisse der Probanden auf dem höchsten Sprachniveau sind beim syntaktischen und lexikalischen Teil des Tests genau gleich, während bei den anderen Teilnehmern die Scores im lexikalischen Teil deutlich niedriger als im syntaktischen Teil sind. Daraus lässt sich schließen, dass intersprachlicher Einfluss bei Anfängern in der Tertiärsprache in den Bereichen Syntax und Lexik nicht auf gleiche Weise stattfindet. Neurolinguistische Theorien über die Wirkung des deklarativen und prozeduralen Gedächtnisses im Gehirn bieten eine mögliche Erklärung für diesen Unterschied. Eine erworbene L1 wird danach im prozeduralen Gedächtnis gespeichert und unbewusst aktiviert, während die später gelernten Fremdsprachen (L2, L3 usw.) im deklarativen Gedächtnis gespeichert und daraus bewusst abgerufen werden. Bei Anfängern in der Tertiärsprache funktioniere die unbewusste Aktivierung der Sprache noch nicht, und verlaufe die Aktivierung also über das deklarative Gedächtnis, in dem sich außer der L3 auch die L2-Kenntnisse befinden; die L2 sei deshalb eine logische Transferquelle beim Tertiärsprachenlernen.Show less
This study aimed to provide a clearer understanding of the phonetic influence a native speaker of Arabic can experience during the acquisition of English as a second language (ESL), specifically...Show moreThis study aimed to provide a clearer understanding of the phonetic influence a native speaker of Arabic can experience during the acquisition of English as a second language (ESL), specifically for the consonants /p/ and /v/ in spelling and pronunciation. In a small-scale experiment, Arabic speakers of English were asked to translate an Arabic story to English by hand to create an authentic product of their spelling abilities. Afterwards, the same participants read a short story in English, which was recorded with audio equipment to later evaluate their pronunciation through the program PRAAT. Contrary to existing literature, the small-scale experiment conducted for this study found no significant effect for the influence of Arabic on English spelling despite this being hypothesised and proven in previous research. Along with this, no effect was found for the experiment based on the pronunciation of /p/ and /v/. Whereas the results did show that Arabic speakers of English had a Voice Onset Time (VOT) of /p/ that was considerably lower, they did not realise a [b] instead of the target [ph] as hypothesised. Speakers did not significantly devoice their /v/ to an [f], which does not directly coincide with the literature that has hypothesised the influence of native language phonology on the pronunciation of English as a second language. When evaluating the results as a whole, two things are implied: (1) there is a possible focus in ESL learning on spelling and therefore no issues were found, and (2) pronunciation is a difficult aspect of ESL learning due to the unfamiliar articulatory processes involved and Arabic learners experience difficulties when faced with the unfamiliar /p/ and to a lesser degree also /v/. However, they are able to make the distinction between the phoneme pairs. These implications may help ESL learners in the future to focus on problem areas, further improve their skills, while simultaneously providing the research niche of phonology with new material to investigate.Show less
In second language (L2) research and in some types of L2 testing, measures of complexity, accuracy and fluency (CAF) are widely applied both to capture performance of language learners as well as...Show moreIn second language (L2) research and in some types of L2 testing, measures of complexity, accuracy and fluency (CAF) are widely applied both to capture performance of language learners as well as to assess L2 learners’ proficiency underlying their performance. In spite of the long research interest in CAF, many questions are still raised, including a significant question as to what extent L2 CAF measures are correct indicators of L2 proficiency. A speaking-oriented study by De Jong et al. (2015) indicates that measures of L1 and L2 fluency are strongly correlated and therefore concluded that there was a large overlap for many aspect of fluency. This study aimed to examine L2 complexity, accuracy and fluency measures and compared them to L1 behavior. Furthermore, the current study also considered whether such correlations are stronger for high-proficient L2 Speakers. Spontaneous speech of 10 native speakers of Armenian and 19 native speakers of Arabic with L2 Dutch is recorded and analyzed with regard to complexity, accuracy, and fluency. Analysis revealed that measures of Complexity, accuracy, and fluency (CAF) in L1 do not significantly correlate with the equivalent measures in L2. The findings would support the threshold hypothesis (LTH), indicating that some threshold of proficiency needs to be attained in L2 before L1 skills can be transferred in the L2.Show less
Mother tongue interference is suspected to be the cause of the disappointing results in writing exams of Dutch ESL students in their graduating secondary education year. Research confirms that L1...Show moreMother tongue interference is suspected to be the cause of the disappointing results in writing exams of Dutch ESL students in their graduating secondary education year. Research confirms that L1 interference could be a problem since it mostly ensues in cognate languages, such as Dutch and English. As L2 learners are often unaware of their interference errors the problem can be persistent. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine to what extent and in what ways L1 interference is of influence on the writings of the Dutch ESL students. Therefore, two sub-questions were formulated: “What are the possible mother tongue interference mistakes for Dutch learners of English?” and “What is are the most frequent mistakes made by Dutch ESL students in HAVO 5?” An error analysis of the students’ writings was carried out, using a coding tool developed for this research. The tool, based on relevant literature on L1 interference and error analysis, provides an elaborate overview of possible Dutch interference. The major findings of this analysis are in the first place that the majority of the found errors are interference related revealing wrong word as the most frequently occurring error, however affecting all aspects of language on both a grammatical as well as textual level. In the second place, the data also show a teachers’ preference to focus on a selection of error patterns to mark. Finally, the analysis confirms the correlation between the nature of errors and the nature of assignments. Future research could focus on the most occurring errors. Moreover, the developed analysis tool can be used for future error analysis.Show less
In a pronunciation evaluation task, 30 Dutch students of English Language & Culture responded to questions about the ‘correctness’ in pronunciation of 4 speakers of global Englishes. This...Show moreIn a pronunciation evaluation task, 30 Dutch students of English Language & Culture responded to questions about the ‘correctness’ in pronunciation of 4 speakers of global Englishes. This included two L1 speakers (from London and New Delhi), and two L2 speakers (from Groningen and Zhengzhou). Follow-up interviews were conducted with 10 participants for further insight. Results showed that the pronunciations were ranked as most to least correct in regard to their similarity to RP. However, three factors were highly influential in participants’ evaluations. Firstly, prosodic features were found to be the defining feature of ‘good’ pronunciation. Secondly, identification of a speaker’s accent affected participants’ overall evaluations. Finally, a speaker was thought to have a lower standard of pronunciation if they did not have an RP accent, regardless of how easy they were to understand. Overall, English was found to be indexical of the UK or USA due to RP and GA being the standard pronunciation models, and if these teaching models are to continue to be the norm, there is an overwhelming need to increase the use of other pronunciation models as stimuli in the classroom to address the practical realities of using English today.Show less
As English continues to be the world’s lingua franca, it is important to recognize the pragmatic norms and conventions of the language. Additionally, it is necessary to understand the norms being...Show moreAs English continues to be the world’s lingua franca, it is important to recognize the pragmatic norms and conventions of the language. Additionally, it is necessary to understand the norms being used by non-native speakers and how the differences may affect communication. This research focuses on how requests were produced by native and non-native English speakers. In specific, it analyzed both which strategies were utilized in forming requests as well as how many were used. The data for this research was collected using in an open role-play involving 38 female participants who had various grammatical competence and were of four different nationalities. The participants’ request strategies were analyzed relative to both their grammatical competence and nationality. The first set of analyses found neither grammatical competence or nationality to a reliable predictor for which request strategies were used. A second set of analyses indicated that nation might be a predictor of a speaker’s use of modal modification to a head act.Show less
In this thesis I will conduct research regarding the acquisition of the BA construction among native Dutch second language learners of Mandarin. I will look at the following research question: Are...Show moreIn this thesis I will conduct research regarding the acquisition of the BA construction among native Dutch second language learners of Mandarin. I will look at the following research question: Are native Dutch speaking learners of Mandarin as a second language faster in understanding certain features of the BA structure and in acquiring the BA structure then native English speaking learners of Mandarin? This question is suggested by the fact that English is an SVO language, while Dutch is basically an SOV language. Since the BA construction is an SOV structure, it could be possible that based on their first language, Dutch learners of Mandarin are faster than English learners of Mandarin in acquiring this structure. At the end of my research I expect to be able to show some interesting points regarding this question, which could be a basis for more research on this question.Show less
Talmy’s (1985;2007) typology classifies languages into satellite-framed (S) languages, that express Manner of motion in the main verb and Path of motion in a satellite to the verb, and verb-framed ...Show moreTalmy’s (1985;2007) typology classifies languages into satellite-framed (S) languages, that express Manner of motion in the main verb and Path of motion in a satellite to the verb, and verb-framed (V) languages, that express Path of motion in the main verb and express Manner only when explicitly foregrounded for some reason. Given this background, how do late second learners of Portuguese, whose L1 (Dutch) is characterized as an S-language, lexicalize spontaneous dynamic Motion events in their L2, which is characterized as a V-language? In this study we investigate Slobin’s Thinking For Speaking (TFS) hypothesis (1996a), which states that the language we speak influences the way we are thinking during the mental processes of preparing content for speech and that restructuring these TFS patterns during second language acquisition may be difficult. As the L2 learners are acquiring a language that differs typologically from their L1, we investigate if they restructured their TFS patterns to those of the L2, or still use the TFS patterns of their L1. To do this, we look into the lexicalization patterns of Portuguese L2 (Dutch L1) learners and compare them to both Portuguese native speakers’ and Dutch native speakers’ performance. This study makes use of data gathered by the Leiden Learner Corpus (LLC) [http://hum.leiden.edu/lucl/llc], a collection of spoken and written data of Dutch learners of Romance languages. In total 42 participants were selected for this study: 11 native speakers of Dutch; 11 native speakers of Portuguese; and 20 second language learners of Portuguese. Participants’ linguistic patterns in encoding Motion events were examined by presenting them a selection of fifteen images taken from the picture book Frog where are you? (Mayer, 1969), which is regularly used in data elicitation for Motion event research. The participants were told to produce a narrative, describing as complete as possible what is happening with the boy, the dog and the frog in the pictures. The oral data was transcribed using the software Praat. The speech was divided into clauses. All the clauses that contained a spontaneous 6 dynamic Motion event, if the figure moves self-contained from one location to another (e.g. ‘The boy falls into the water’), were extracted. All verbs and modifiers were classified into the following motion categories: Manner verb (manner of motion); Path verb (direction or trajectory of motion); Manner+Path verb, (intermediate position between ‘pure’ Manner verbs and ‘pure’ Path verbs and has both a manner and a path component); Neutral verb (verb that expresses motion, but does not provide information about the manner or trajectory of motion). Native speakers of Dutch and Portuguese performed as I expected, with the Dutch speakers using more Manner verbs and the Portuguese showing a preference for Path verbs. L2 learners’ patterns of motion event lexicalization do not resemble those of either Dutch or Portuguese native speakers. This in-between pattern found in L2 learner’s production suggests two possible explanations: the first explanation builds on the theory of ‘Interlanguage’ as first proposed by Selinker in 1972 (Slabakova, 2016), which claims that the L2 system should be considered a system in its own right and not a defective copy of the target language. The second explanation builds on practical constraints of. This explanation builds on the fact that L2 learners did not possess the same amount of grammatical and lexical knowledge as the native speakers, and therefore they did not perform as native speakers of the target language.Show less
Mandarin Chinese is usually considered a numeral classifier language (Del Gobbo, 2014). According to Allan’s (1977) definition, a numeral classifier is an independent morpheme that “denotes some...Show moreMandarin Chinese is usually considered a numeral classifier language (Del Gobbo, 2014). According to Allan’s (1977) definition, a numeral classifier is an independent morpheme that “denotes some salient perceived or imputed characteristic of the entity to which the associated noun refers” (p. 285). The present study first constructs a categorization of Chinese classifiers, and second, an investigation in the acquisition of Chinese Classifiers for L2 learners. To construct the categorization of Chinese classifiers, I will first provide an overview of the categorizations of Chinese classifiers from previous studies and discuss the primary features of the categorizations provided by Chinese and Western scholars. In general, there is no distinction between measure words and classifiers in the categorizations given by Chinese scholars, while most of the Western categorizations do make the distinction. However, the classifiers that are discussed by Western scholars only represent part of a large system of Chinese classifiers. Based on current categorizations, a revised categorization focusing on Chinese classifiers is carried out. The second part is to explore the acquisition of Chinese Classifiers for L2 learners with the goal of providing some suggestions on teaching and learning Chinese Classifiers that potentially benefits both L2 learners and teachers. First, I will illustrate previous studies of Chinese CLs acquisition for L2 learners in which the difficulties in learning Chinese CLs for L2 learners will also be displayed. Secondly, I will discuss current teaching materials and methods of Chinese CLs. Finally, the revised categorization will be applied in order to propose a more effective approach in teaching and learning Chinese classifiers before the conclusion is addressed.Show less
The thesis tried to examine the influence of word order and pro-drop of the native language on the acquisition of Dutch by learners with a Romance and Chinese mother tongue. The LLC-corpus has been...Show moreThe thesis tried to examine the influence of word order and pro-drop of the native language on the acquisition of Dutch by learners with a Romance and Chinese mother tongue. The LLC-corpus has been used to answer the research question. Spoken and written tasks have been analysed to examine the influence of the mother tongue on the acquisition of Dutch.Show less
In a threefold study linking sociolinguistics to the field of second language acquisition, I investigated what values students indexed through their L2 English accent. I related this to their...Show moreIn a threefold study linking sociolinguistics to the field of second language acquisition, I investigated what values students indexed through their L2 English accent. I related this to their identity. Indexicality is a framework that attatches linguistic variables to social meanings (e.g. Eckert, 2008, Trousdale, 2010, p. 48). The social meanings attached to speech are valued unequally across social groups, and therefore, some language is more likely to be heard and respected than others in a construct termed the ‘linguistic marketplace’ by Bourdieu and Boltanski (Eckert, 2000, p. 13). This study involved questionnaires (n=99), interviews (n=4), and investigations into students’ sound files (n=18). The majority of the students (71%) aspired to a British accent, which could be related to findings in the questionnaire: namely that students rated sounding native and intelligent highly. When interviewed, students stated that a British accent, and specifically Received Pronunciation (RP), sounded more intelligent, and had more prestige attached to it. Investigation by Edwards (2016) reveals that the British accent is still considered the default model in the Netherlands. Thus it appears they have appropriated this norm, and thereby maximise the value of their speech on the linguistic marketplace. Moreover, students likely wish to signal their intelligence and expertise by emulating the British ideal. In general, students sounded predominantly British in their sound files (52% on average), though they had 40% Dutch influence on average, and also traces of American influences, like t-flapping and rhoticity. Besides L1 interference this showed students also incorporated aspects of speech which likely had covert prestige for them. In general, students’ accent preferences signal their academic, professional identity, but do not seem to index all aspects of their identity. When applied to the wider L2 acquisition field, this study illustrates identity expression may not be a priority of learners; instead, they may wish to appropriate a most standard and accepted accent.Show less
In this research I try to find out what Italian learners of the French language know about the position and the form of the subject in French wh-questions. I do this by executing a judgment test,...Show moreIn this research I try to find out what Italian learners of the French language know about the position and the form of the subject in French wh-questions. I do this by executing a judgment test, in which the participants have to judge a list of grammatical and agrammatical sentences. The main question of this thesis is whether the Italian learners have a preference for the (Dutch) V2-structure - which seemed to be the case in Kroeskop's thesis (2011) - and also whether the Italian language plays a part in this.Show less
As the number of immigrants to the Netherlands has grown substantially, providing education for immigrant children has become an important issue. Through a literature study, this thesis attempts to...Show moreAs the number of immigrants to the Netherlands has grown substantially, providing education for immigrant children has become an important issue. Through a literature study, this thesis attempts to answer the question what the best policy is in providing education for immigrant children in the primary school age – whether these children should enter regular education, or whether they need to learn Dutch through a specialized program such as transitional or immersion education before enrolling in regular classes. Literature consistently shows that specialized programs for language-minority children are most effective in providing these children with education; both to learn Dutch and to learn curriculum content. If possible these programs should be bilingual, as continued development of the children’s L1 facilitates second-language learning. Second language education should not just focus on language acquisition, but also on acquiring academic language and literacy skills. Apart from linguistic and cognitive factors, the social context should also be taken into consideration: specialized programs should be integrated within mainstream schools in order to give immigrant children the chance to interact with native peers and help them to fit in. Additionally, teachers should be affirmative of the children’s identities. These social factors are beneficial for immigrant children’s second-language acquisition and overall academic achievement as well.Show less
Abstract Nowadays, early foreign language learning in the Netherlands is booming and generally preferred over language learning starting at a later stage due to its presumed positive effects on...Show moreAbstract Nowadays, early foreign language learning in the Netherlands is booming and generally preferred over language learning starting at a later stage due to its presumed positive effects on pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar acquisition (Groot & Deelder, 2014). In (early) second language acquisition classrooms, native speaker teachers are often preferred over non-native speaker teachers due the model of language they can present; native speakers have reached the so-called target L2 learners try to obtain (Cook, 2008, p. 185). Furthermore, in the Netherlands, it is generally assumed that learners who are taught by a native speaker will become more proficient in the target language than learners who are taught by a non-native speaker, especially in terms of pronunciation (SLO, 2011). However, hardly any research has focused on whether this assumption is true. This research attempts to fill this gap by examining whether early English language learners taught by a native speaker attain a more native-like pronunciation than learners taught by a non-native speaker. Pupils of two Dutch primary schools were tested on their English pronunciation (segmentals), with one group following an early learning programme in which they were (partly) taught by a native speaker teacher, and another group following such a programme during which they were taught by a non-native speaker. Results show that learners taught by a non-native speaker produce more native-like consonants than speakers taught by a native speaker. In addition, learners taught by a non-native speaker produce fewer Dutch-like vowels than learners taught by a native speaker. However, it cannot be concluded with certainty that, therefore, the learners taught by a non-native speaker also produced more native-like vowels. Yet, based on the results of this research, it can be concluded that, in terms of pronunciation, learners taught by a native speaker teacher are not more native-like than learners taught by a non-native speaker. It is arguable that being taught by a native speaker teacher does not lead to better pronunciation results.Show less
The increasing dominance of English has given rise to various language attitudes and government measures attempting to curb the influence of English on the first language. France is a paradigmatic...Show moreThe increasing dominance of English has given rise to various language attitudes and government measures attempting to curb the influence of English on the first language. France is a paradigmatic case of language planning and language policy, and even today many of the measures are still in place as to ensure that the usage of English is kept to a minimum. This thesis investigates the attempts by the French government to limit the use of English in the public domain, and asks the question whether these attempts have an impact on the acquisition of English as a second language in France. By examining not only the historical origins of France’s language management, but also the current dissemination of opinions and attitudes in the media, it can be concluded that many of the negative effects emanating from the government measures, such as relatively low English proficiency, are the result of France’s unchanged linguistic culture predating the French Revolution that continues to fuel France’s language policy today.Show less
