The field of archaeology has been having a growing problem when it comes to dealing with our legacy data. The years of research have increased the amount latent data to a point where it has become...Show moreThe field of archaeology has been having a growing problem when it comes to dealing with our legacy data. The years of research have increased the amount latent data to a point where it has become an urgent problem to deal with. This research uses the F.A.I.R. guidelines that have been founded in order to help alleviate this problem. Specifically, this thesis looks at what step need to be made in order to make legacy data reusable. It does so by investigating on how to make legacy data findable, accessible, interoperable and lastly reusable. Every one of these principles deals with a core issue of keeping data useable, the findability of a legacy dataset can mostly be solved by adding it to an online repository, such large database structures house multiple sets of data in order to keep them available for further research. Important however is that the data is formatted correctly as the proper meta data is needed in order for it to me mapped to a functional ontology. The ontology as used by ARIADNE and designed by CIDOC helps interlink the individual datasets in order to create a web of semantically consistent information that can thus be found and accessed online. By mapping data into such an ontology, it becomes interoperable with other datasets as they have been awarded corresponding categories and data relations. These corresponding relations make it so that the data can be compared a used for further research. The process of creating sufficiently coherent and consistent sets of metadata for every dataset cost time. This is also not always possible, to improve the odd of integrating data into an ontology their complexity gets increased. Ontologies however get less user-friendly as the complexity rises leading to a similar issue of archaeologists using different repositories to store their data, or lead to archaeologists not storing their data at al. By balancing the complexity and user-friendliness while also educating archaeologists in the field it might be possible to prevent this issue. This is key as case studies in Europe have demonstrated the large sets of interlinked or joined legacy data can provide insight into already analyzed data, clear out existing biases when it comes to dealing with survey data, and individual-level spatial artefact distribution. The case provided by the thesis itself shows that applying these novel techniques is not always as straight forwards as theory often doesn’t work as intended in practice. No doubt the possibilities will grow as the field develops since linked data becomes more useful when more data is interlinked. The possibility of dealing with the huge amount of legacy data is available, now the only thing needed is investing into the tool needed.Show less
Norias have been among the most important water lifters in the pre-industrialised Mediterranean basin. From their early appearance during the Hellenistic Age (3rd -1st century BC) until the 20th...Show moreNorias have been among the most important water lifters in the pre-industrialised Mediterranean basin. From their early appearance during the Hellenistic Age (3rd -1st century BC) until the 20th century, norias have played a crucial role in granting a more effective exploitation of water resources. The relevance of these devices is well reflected in the academic literature. Nevertheless, the fragmentation of the research in different regions and the lack of the device definitions still prevent a clear noria terminology to be available. Starting from these premises, this research will propose a new approach to describe noria devices. A new noria classification will be applied to the medieval site of Ta’as (Northern Syria). The noria vase fragments from the Syrian site will be studied and compared with similar artifacts. Climatic studies and archaeozoological evaluations will highlight how chain norias were probably used in the area of study.Show less
The Late Mesolithic period is rich in human burials with unmodified and modified animal remains and animal burials. In contrast, the Early and Middle Neolithic period is less studied. The focus of...Show moreThe Late Mesolithic period is rich in human burials with unmodified and modified animal remains and animal burials. In contrast, the Early and Middle Neolithic period is less studied. The focus of this research is on the different relationships humans have with animals at the Late Mesolithic period throughout the Early and Middle Neolithic in South Scandinavia and the Netherlands. The relevance of this study is to understand the human-animal relationship before and after the introduction of the domestic animal: pigs, cattle and sheep. The research approach was to focus on animal and human mortuary practices using ideas from the personhood approach with a deposition typology. The deposition typology helps to divide all the animal remains in groups with similar characteristics. This method allows the exploration of different attitudes humans had towards animals. The results of this research indicate that animals played an important role in the mortuary practices as animals are present in all contexts. However, these practices change from Late Mesolithic to the Early and Middle Neolithic period as there was a decrease of animal remains in mortuary practices in South Scandinavia and an increase in the Netherlands. This dissertation illustrates the lack of studies there is about animal deposition and the need for further research on this topic.Show less
De transformatie van tempel naar kerk, ook wel tempel conversie genoemd, is een interessant verschijnsel dat zich vooral heeft geuit tussen de derde en de zesde eeuw. In deze periode incorporeren...Show moreDe transformatie van tempel naar kerk, ook wel tempel conversie genoemd, is een interessant verschijnsel dat zich vooral heeft geuit tussen de derde en de zesde eeuw. In deze periode incorporeren christelijke groeperingen (vaak leegstaande) tempels, en gebruiken het als plek voor de uitvoering van hun eigen religieuze praktijken. Egypte, dat een heel lange periode van complexe beschaving kent, bergt talloze tempels en kent een belangrijke periode van christelijke cultuur. Daarom is Egypte belangrijk in het onderzoek naar de verspreiding van het christendom en beschikt over veel materiaal dat de transformatie van tempel naar kerk kan toelichten. Friedrich Deichmann heeft als pionier een catalogus opgesteld met tempels die christelijke resten vertonen (inscripties etc.), verspreid over het gehele Romeinse Oosten. Door deze te vergelijken met teksten van antieke schrijvers, interpreteert hij de christelijke aanwezigheid in tempels als een overheersing van het heidendom. In de decennia na Deichmann is er veel onderzoek gedaan naar de vroegchristelijke gemeenschap. Echter, deze onderzoeken betreffen vaak alleen de gemeenschap en niet de archeologische resten die ze hebben achter gelaten. Afgezien van een aantal publicaties uit de afgelopen 15 jaar, is Deichmann de enige die het fenomeen tempel-conversie en de beweegredenen achter deze kwestie op heeft genomen in zijn onderzoek. De bronnen die in dit onderzoek gebruikt worden betreffen archeologische en geschreven bronnen. Het zwaartepunt ligt op de geschreven bronnen, omdat deze categorie omvangrijker is dan de archeologische bronnen welke zelfs als ‘schaars’ worden aangeduid. De geschreven bronnen vormen echter geen goede basis voor het onderzoek, omdat deze gekleurd zijn door de mening van de auteur. Verder zijn deze bronnen vaak niet contemporain en (meerdere malen) gekopieerd. Ook zijn, en dat geldt voor beide categorieën bronnen, de bronnen multiinterpretabel. Dit bemoeilijkt het onderzoek en daarom is het lastig om, met behulp van de beschikbare bronnen, tot een weloverwogen conclusie te komen. Ook Deichmann’s interpretatie en conclusie brengen problemen met zich mee. Ten eerste, doordat Deichmann het zwaartepunt van zijn argumentatie legt op de antieke bronnen, baseert hij zich eigenlijk op een heel gekleurd beeld, namelijk het beeld wat de antieke schrijver (in zijn geval Eusebius van Caesarea) wil schetsen. Ten tweede, Deichmann’s argumentatie is op een dusdanige manier geconstrueerd dat er een cirkelredenering ontstaat. Ten derde, zijn theorie suggereert een generalisatie: dat de conversie van tempels overal in het Romeinse Rijk op dezelfde manier wordt uitgevoerd. Op deze manier worden dus meerdere manieren van conversie uitgesloten, en het debat over de relaties tussen heidenen en christenen in een bepaald hoekje gedrukt. Het is daarom nodig om een andere (theoretische) insteek te nemen in het onderzoek. Het antwoord ligt in de sociale wetenschap: Social Memory, als een concept wat in eerste instantie gebruikt wordt om contemporaine gemeenschappen te interpreteren. Doordat Social Memory breed ingezet wordt (in de verschillende takken van de sociale wetenschap), biedt het brede perspectieven voor interpretatie. Social memory bespreekt het proces van herinneren en vergeten binnen het collectieve geheugen van een gemeenschap, en concentreert zich op (belangrijke) historische gebeurtenissen in het (dagelijks) leven van de mensen. Religie is ook een belangrijke vorm van social memory, omdat het een belangrijke factor in het dagelijks leven van de mensen is. De tempel is het meest belangrijkste instituut betreffende de religie. Doordat social memory de tempel en zijn uiterlijke vorm bespreken, is het mogelijk om ‘from the bottom up’-view te creëren. De tempel (en de archeologische bronnen) worden hiermee als onderwerp behandeld, en niet als lijdend bewijs. Omdat de bronnen multi-interpretabel zijn, is het nog steeds lastig om een compleet beeld te vormen betreffende de conversie van tempels, en de relaties tussen heidenen en christenen. De bronnen confirmeren beide benaderingen, en daarom biedt social memory (als theoretisch) concept nog geen uitkomst in het onderzoek naar de conversie van tempels. Het is daarom nodig om verder te kijken dan alleen de tempels, bijvoorbeeld naar de context en de gemeenschap. Omdat de christenen een rustige gemeenschap leken te zijn die niet te onderscheiden was van een normale ‘heiden’ (als beschreven in de oude bronnen), lijkt het vrij lastig om aan te nemen dat er een soort collectieve haat bestond tussen heidenen en christenen. Er kunnen verscheidene redenen genoemd worden die dit beeld versterken, zoals begrafenissen op de zelfde plekken en gezamenlijke liturgische en kunstzinnige aspecten. Deze feiten weerleggen de theorie dat de christenen en heidenen op vijandige voet leefden enigszins, maar verklaren nog steeds niet de redenen betreffende de conversie van tempels naar christelijke kerken, hoe deze conversie in zijn werk ging, en waarom. Om hier achter te komen zou elke tempel (in Egypte) op zich zelf bestudeerd moeten worden, om te kijken wat er is precies gebeurd is. Op deze manier kan er een driedimensionaal model gecreëerd worden, dat beide de conversie van tempels bespreekt, als de (veranderende) relatie tussen heidenen en christenen.Show less
In this thesis, it is examined how the period between ca. 150 and 350 AD is represented in the macrobotanical record of the Meuse-Demer-Scheldt area. Furthermore, an attempt is made to shed light...Show moreIn this thesis, it is examined how the period between ca. 150 and 350 AD is represented in the macrobotanical record of the Meuse-Demer-Scheldt area. Furthermore, an attempt is made to shed light on the developments which must have led to the assumed demographic decline during this period. This is done by relating the macrobotanical outcome to four prediction models which were based on four existing explanatory theories on the decline, formulated by Groenman-van Waateringe (1983), Roymans and Gerritsen (2002), Slofstra (1991) and Verwers (1998). These scholars disagreed about the exact start and end date of the decline. Although the macrobotanical record does not show an unambiguous chronological overview for the Meuse-Demer-Scheldt area, most data refer to a gradual start between 150 and 200 AD and an end date around 350 AD. It is revealed that the macrobotanical data lack evidence about essential trends formulated in the prediction models. It was impossible to significantly enhance or weaken either of the four explanatory theories. However, it is clear that the period between 150 and 350 AD was not a fruitful phase for the Meuse-Demer-Scheldt area. More research and a uniform presentation of results in macrobotanical studies were strongly recommended.Show less
Skeletal non-metric traits (NMTs) are minor morphological variants that are often used by osteoarchaeologists to determine genetic affiliation between past populations (biodistance). Some NMTs are...Show moreSkeletal non-metric traits (NMTs) are minor morphological variants that are often used by osteoarchaeologists to determine genetic affiliation between past populations (biodistance). Some NMTs are heavily affected by environmental factors, especially habitual physical activities, whereas others have a genetic cause. This study introduces the novel application of subdividing NMTs into a mechanical, genetic, and ambiguous category, to elucidate traits of different heritability. This method is applied to a sample of 93 well-preserved adult skeletons from the 17th-19th century AD cemetery of Middenbeemster, the Netherlands. Twenty-six cranial and post-cranial skeletal NMTs were examined to determine: 1) whether significant differences in NMTs between males and females, and different age groups were present, 2) whether significant differences in mechanical NMTs versus genetic NMTs were present in the Middenbeemster sample, and 3) whether there was more variation in mechanical versus genetic NMT frequency between Middenbeemster and comparative groups of the same ethnicity. It is expected that mechanical NMTs would exhibit more variation than genetic NMTs, since it is thought that activities vary more between groups than their genes. No statistically significant differences in NMT frequency were present between males and females, or among age categories. No statistically significant differences were observed between the genetic and mechanical NMT categories in the Middenbeemster sample. Finally, no significant differences were encountered when comparing Middenbeemster to comparative assemblages. The results are affected by a small sample size, and the lack of comparative samples with frequency data for many NMTs. Future research using this categorisation can provide insight in highly heritable NMTs, which will improve the accuracy selection of biodistance studies, and traits that are more mechanically affected, for use in past activity reconstruction.Show less
The subject of this research is a ceiling painting in a corridor of 27 meter long in the Domus Augustana on the Palatine Hill in Rome, Italy. The style of the ceiling painting is linear decoration,...Show moreThe subject of this research is a ceiling painting in a corridor of 27 meter long in the Domus Augustana on the Palatine Hill in Rome, Italy. The style of the ceiling painting is linear decoration, based on its geometrical design, colour scale, while missing the architectural elements visible in other styles. The painting has been dated to the Post Severan period (235-285 AD). This type of style is often found in minor rooms of a building. Unfortunately little research has been done on ceiling painting of the 2nd and 3rd centuries and no similar painting has been found. The walls of the corridor are decorated with marble slabs of type 1 decoration style often found in minor rooms. The date of the marble decoration is the reign of Hadrian. While the walls itself are constructed in different phases, mainly in the reign of Nero and early Flavian period. Out of the space syntax analyses with JASS and Depth Map could also be concluded that the corridor is a minor room in the Domus Augustana. The corridor gave access to a group of rooms which have a secluded character, which were probably used for small banquets and other meetings.Show less
The 4th century marks the beginning of Christianity in Gaul. During the first two decades of the 4th century, Christians were still persecuted by law but by the end of the century Christianity had...Show moreThe 4th century marks the beginning of Christianity in Gaul. During the first two decades of the 4th century, Christians were still persecuted by law but by the end of the century Christianity had become the state religion of the Roman Empire. This was not only possible because of the pro-Christian emperors, starting with Constantine I. but also because of changes in society. Christianity was not yet accepted everywhere, but the new religion became more and more prominent, especially in the cities. But how prominent was it compared to the state religion of the Roman gods? Gradually Christianity gained means to present itself in a better way. Aristocratic and wealthy families which had been converted to Christianity played an important role in that process. Christianity adjusted itself to the circumstances of the moment like inflation, invaders, emperors, usurpers, etc. and used them to its benefit. However, the circumstances are not the same for every city and every province. Regional differences are reflected in the degree of Christianization, the presence of a bishop, the presence and location of a church and other Christian buildings. This thesis looks at the question “How prominent was Christianity in the cities in Gaul during the 4th century?” In order to answer this question, the situations of Christianity and of the cities in Gaul need to be investigated shortly. The background of the 4th century is covered in chapters 3 and 4. Chapter 5 is devoted to the church buildings: what did they look like and where were they located? In chapter 6 the main players of Christianity are discussed: what functions did the clergy have and what status did the clergy – mainly focusing on bishops – have and which position did the laymen hold in Gaul in the 4th century? Chapter 7 puts all this information together and provides an overview of the Christian presence and prominence in every province, based on a list of all the cities in Gaul, which can be found in appendices V to XXI. The final chapter explores the pagan presence and prominence in the cities Gaul in the 4th century.Show less
This thesis deals with the Mesolithic barbed points which were found by amateur archaeologists at the area of Europoort in the Netherlands. The main goal of the thesis was to find out the possible...Show moreThis thesis deals with the Mesolithic barbed points which were found by amateur archaeologists at the area of Europoort in the Netherlands. The main goal of the thesis was to find out the possible ways of production and use of the barbed points by producing and using copies via experiments. Overall fifteen artifacts were loaned out from the Archaeological Museum of Leiden in order to be studied for the purposes of the thesis. They were made of antler and bone (mostly metapodia). The original barbed points were checked for possible traces under stereo microscope and metallographic analysis took place as well. The next step was to produce five experimental barbed points based on the information which their analyses gave. Hence, the groove and splinter technique was used for the two antler barbed points and the metapodial technique for the two barbed points made of bone. The fifth experimental tool was made out of a rib bone, which was cut in pieces in order to take the proper piece needed for the manufacture. All of them were grinded on a sand stone in order to take the proper shape and a flint blade was used to make the barbs. After that they were hafted on spears and arrows, depending on their size, and the shooting experiments took place near the city of Arnhem in the Netherlands. The experimental tools proved to be really effective. The used barbed points were analyzed and documented photographically the same way as the original artifacts. When the Mesolithic and the experimental barbed points were compared, it came out that they bear in a considerable amount the same kind of traces. Most of them were caused during the production process (grinding or scratches due to the flint tool which was used), while there is a few amount of impact scars and use wear traces. The only exception, as far as the scratches are concerned, is that the original artifacts bear a lot of randomly directed scratches, while the experimental barbed points barely have any. Therefore, it was assumed that they were a result of depositional modifications. Finally, in the discussion part of the thesis a variety of ways is suggested on how the experimental tools can be used to benefit the public, in the context of heritage management.Show less
Archaeological material dating to the Bronze Age (BA) suggest that violence was a reoccurring phenomenon in the period. This evidence includes the amass deposition in hoards of the newly emerged...Show moreArchaeological material dating to the Bronze Age (BA) suggest that violence was a reoccurring phenomenon in the period. This evidence includes the amass deposition in hoards of the newly emerged bronze weapons. Brück and Fontijn (2013) have explained this deposition as reflecting the end of the life-path of bronze objects. They assume that object during the BA were imbued with power and meaning through the actions done with the object, i.e. its life-history. Through the interaction between objects and individuals, the social fabric of the BA was formed. This model explains the selective depositions of bronze objects, but it does not delineate why precisely weapons were deposited. While weapons have a clear social context where they could have derived meaning and power from, in the form of combat. Therefore, within this thesis the intended combative use of bronze weapons is explored, in particular bronze spears, in order to examine if a specif type of combat could have imbued bronze weapons with meaning. One of the martial contexts were bronze spears could have been used in is formalised combats. These are combats fought with highly specific norms, called combat capital, for a large array of socio-political and -cultural reasons, named societal capital. Formalised fights act as a safe and controlled manner of violence expression in society. The highly specific combat capital with which the fights are fought, manifest itself in various combat styles that can be linked to a weapon design. The two primary combat styles are binding, whereby contact between the weapons of two fighters is continuously maintained to feel the actions of an opponent, and striking, whereby hitting an opponents weapon is used as the manner for gaining control. Binding is more associated with formalised combat, due to necessity of only combating one opponent, while striking combat can be used in all types of combat. In order to examine for which combat style bronze spears were intended for, a weapons design analysis (WDA) method was used. This method analysis weapons according to five elements, to form a framework of limitations wherein the weapon could have been used. This WDA relies on a different epistemic dimension than conscious deliberation. A knowledge dimensions that is largely unconscious and comes to individuals as feelings and sensations. The WDA thus must be performed by expert-users, that pose a minimum level of skill, i.e. knowledge, in this unconscious dimensions. A WDA, composing of four phenomenological archaeological experiments, was performed by two expert users on two replica bronze spears to gain insight into the combative use of BA spears in general. This WDA concluded, especially based on damage sustained by the spears during the experiments, that bronze spears were probably primarily intended for formalised fights, but with the potential to be used for other martial contexts. Other weapons, however, were probably more optimised 122 for these other types of fights. These formalised fights could have been one of the events wherein the social fabric of Bronze Age society was negotiated, and weapon could procure their power and meaning from.Show less
This research has focussed on frailty and stress in the late medieval and early modern populations of the Broerenkerk in Zwolle and the Eusebiuskerk in Arnhem, in order to understand how stress...Show moreThis research has focussed on frailty and stress in the late medieval and early modern populations of the Broerenkerk in Zwolle and the Eusebiuskerk in Arnhem, in order to understand how stress affected individuals from different sexes, age categories, and status. To understand this, three methods were used: linear enamel hypoplasia, cribra orbitalia, and porotic hyperostosis. In total, 84 skeletons were analysed. The populations have been analysed with each other as well as on their own. The methods have been compared to each other to understand whether they might relate to each other and whether it was likely that they occurred within a skeleton simultaneously. Results showed that there was no statistical significance within or between the sex and age-at-death categories within and between the populations, except for the cribra orbitalia results between the population of the Eusebiuskerk and the Broerenkerk. This has been linked to status: the population buried in the Broerenkerk was of a higher status than the population of the Eusebiuskerk. Although they were likely not extremely rich, as illustrated by the job names presented on the covering slabs, they likely had better access to food. The population of the Eusebiuskerk was likely to be of a very poor status due to trade tokens found with the individuals and because they were buried in the northern church grounds. The fact that the individuals from Zwolle showed less linear enamel hypoplasia might be the result of them experiencing less long term stress. Poor individuals lived close together in guesthouses, which means that illnesses could spread faster. So, it is clear that stress affected statuses differently, and that individuals from Arnhem were more fragile as a result. Yet, care must be taken as limitations are present.Show less
Around the 12th century AD in Japan, a cultural transition takes place on the northern island of Hokkaido: Okhotsk culture and Satsumon culture (approx. 6th to 12th century AD) come to an end as...Show moreAround the 12th century AD in Japan, a cultural transition takes place on the northern island of Hokkaido: Okhotsk culture and Satsumon culture (approx. 6th to 12th century AD) come to an end as Ainu culture emerges. The Okhotsk people, focused strongly on exploitation of marine resources, originated on the island of Sakhalin and migrated south to Hokkaido and along its northeastern coast. The Satsumon people on the other hand, lived mostly in riverine settlements on the southern half and inland of Hokkaido. They practiced agriculture of wheat, barley and millet, as well as salmon fishing. This cultural transition is not yet well understood. I will focus on the role of Okhotsk culture in this process. How did interaction and exchange of Okhotsk people with Satsumon culture impact its decline and the transition to proto-Ainu culture on Hokkaido? To investigate this issue, Peer Polity Interaction theory is applied. Within this framework, eight different types of interaction are defined: competition, competitive emulation, warfare, transmission of innovation, symbolic entrainment, ceremonial exchange of valuables, flow of commodities, and language and ethnicity. This theory avoids insinuating dominance of one group over the other, and allows for the incorporation not just of material culture but also symbolic aspects. Using the English sources available, 32 Okhotsk sites have been examined for evidence of interaction and exchange with Satsumon culture according to these categories. The existing theories about the decline of Okhotsk culture involving migration, trade and warfare have been analyzed, and then reevaluated based on the results of the Peer Polity Interaction approach. Evidence of Satsumon pottery at Okhotsk sites, iron goods and import of bear cubs all points to a larger reliance on trade and exchange than previously assumed, to the detriment of Okhotsk production. This increased interaction allowed for symbolic entrainment to occur, leading to a more widespread adoption of an early form of the bear sending ceremony. This ritual is known ethnographically from later Ainu culture, but not Satsumon culture which is said to be its main ancestor. This research aims to contribute to our understanding of interaction between marine hunter-gatherers and agricultural people.Show less
Weapons from Albaniana: useful stock or useless waste?' Research into possible interpretations of weaponry from the early Roman fort in Alphen a/d Rijn, the Netherlands, based on the analysis of...Show moreWeapons from Albaniana: useful stock or useless waste?' Research into possible interpretations of weaponry from the early Roman fort in Alphen a/d Rijn, the Netherlands, based on the analysis of finds, context and distribution. A large part of these weapons was found in the wet context of the former river zone, but why? Was it originally meant for recycling, was is dumped as useless waste, was it dumped in haste, while the enemy approached, or was there a ritual component in the dump? Was Roman waste ever value-free, or was discarded material only dumped after a ritual?Show less
