Content moderation is about optimizing the equilibrium between two important values: freedom of speech and a safe and secure digital space. The main tasks are defining what is admissible content...Show moreContent moderation is about optimizing the equilibrium between two important values: freedom of speech and a safe and secure digital space. The main tasks are defining what is admissible content and assuring that inadmissible content is not allowed into the digital public space. Commercial digital platforms cannot be expected to carry this responsibility on their own without any incentives or obligations. They have their own commercial goals to serve. Tightened and more precise regulation is necessary. Overfitting the regulation will compromise freedom of speech. Underfitting the regulation will compromise the security of the digital space. An important aspect of assessing this balance is transparency. In this thesis we looked at the historical timeline of drafted regulation and the rise of social media. The three layer-model of cyberspace was used to analyse AI facilitated content moderation. Transparency requirements on each level have been identified and existing and upcoming regulation on content moderation and AI has been assessed to identify gaps. Current regulation on transparency in content moderation lacks clarity, enforcement, and consistency, partly because the E-commerce Directive was drafted before the explosive rise of social media and AI. It is remarkable, however, that the basic requirement for notice and takedown still serves a very relevant purpose. An increased focus of regulation of the technical layer is required with the introduction of artificial intelligence tools in content moderation. Although regulation on artificial intelligence is fragmented and still in an early stage of development, the Digital Services Act and the EU White Paper on Artificial Intelligence include promising measures, such as record keeping and auditing. The overlap and mutual synergy between both regulations should be closely monitored. The last conclusion is on transparency of terminology. Terminology regarding transparency in the world of AI technology, often relates to insight into the technical functioning of algorithms and to the ability to predict the outcome of an artificial intelligence model. In the governance world, transparency is linked to accountability and clarity. This gap between the world of artificial intelligence technology and the world of governance will need extra attention when drafting further regulation on AI. There is a need for common terminology.Show less
Many have expressed their concerns of the increase and severity of ransomware attacks targeting the healthcare sector, in particular hospitals, during the corona-era. A combination of the...Show moreMany have expressed their concerns of the increase and severity of ransomware attacks targeting the healthcare sector, in particular hospitals, during the corona-era. A combination of the healthcare sector's reliance on its systems and the often urgent need to access (medical) data means that some cybercriminals have identified the healthcare sector as a suitable target. Some even claimed that the pandemic has cause a change in the modus operandi of offenders deploying ransomware. This qualitative research examines to what extent the COVID-19 pandemic truly changed the modus operandi of offenders who committed a ransomware attack targeting the healthcare sector. More specifically, it investigates how a ransomware attack was carried out at the healthcare sector during the pandemic through conducting a crime script analysis. Subsequently, it investigates whether this differs from the situation before the COVID-19 pandemic. The results of this study indicate that the modus operandi changed just a slightly bit from the situation before the COVID-19 pandemic, but no significant changes were identified. This indicates that we must be critical about most of the claims stating that COVID-19 has caused a serious change in ransomware attacks on the healthcare sector opening up new opportunities to avoid moral panic.Show less
