Refuse layers are often rich in plant remains, which give them the potential to provide valuable information to archaeobotanics. However, the plant remains within these layers could have entered...Show moreRefuse layers are often rich in plant remains, which give them the potential to provide valuable information to archaeobotanics. However, the plant remains within these layers could have entered the layers via a considerable number of combinations of pathways and additionally these layers are exposed to processes such as contamination and reduction, which affect the botanical composition. Due to this complex nature, it remains difficult to fully interpret the botanical information from such refuse layers. Therefore, a new approach is presented, to optimise the interpretation of plant remains from refuse layers based on the analysis and characterisation of botanical samples from refuse layers within a street, some houses and a granary in Karanis, a Graeco-Roman village in Egypt. By analysing the botanical composition of the samples and the degree of fragmentation of the plant remains together with the reduction through consumption by humans, livestock, rodents and/or insects, it was possible to distinguish certain clusters of plant remains. In combination with the additional analysis of the photographs of the large sieve fractions of the samples, these clusters could be assigned to possible pathways, such as crumbled building materials, crumbled dung and kitchen waste. Moreover, it appeared that all samples showed some similarity in botanical composition, which could probably be attributed to crumbled architecture, in combination with the influence of the wind. Furthermore, it appeared that reduction of the plant material by rodent gnawing has occurred in almost all contexts. As a result of these analyses it became possible to improve the characterisation and hence the interpretation of botanical remains from various refuse layers, based on which in the future the sampling strategy can be adjusted in relation to specific research questions. Fruits of safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) were identified in the majority of the samples and, because of the rich occurrence of oil presses in Karanis, it was investigated whether the safflower remains were the result of oil production or of other processes, such as animal activity. In order to do so, a small literature study was combined with the proxy data of the safflower remains. Based on the written evidence, it could not be determined exactly how safflower oil was produced and what kind of remains this created. However, the degree of fragmentation and the considerable number of safflower remains that showed traces of consumption by livestock and/or gnawing marks of rodents, suggest that the remains were probably the result of animal activity rather than oil production.Show less
The entry of a high number of large animals from Africa, North America and Asia into Europe during the Plio‐Pleistocene provided a rich diversity of both herbivore and carnivore populations. These...Show moreThe entry of a high number of large animals from Africa, North America and Asia into Europe during the Plio‐Pleistocene provided a rich diversity of both herbivore and carnivore populations. These high numbers of animal dispersals into Europe indicate that the continent was a sink habitat during the Plio‐Pleistocene and probably open to way of hominid entry into the continent. Studying of these dispersals is important for understanding the late Neogene and the Quaternary environment of Europe, particularly the timing of the establishment and collapsing of the land bridges as well as developments in climate and vegetation. Moreover, a high number of long distance animal dispersals also give to opportunity of a studying the animal dispersals’ behaviors and modes which represent the occurrence of a dispersal in ‘space’, ‘time’ and ‘form’. The Plio‐Pleistocene long distance dispersals of animals into Europe reveal four distinct movement patterns as ‘geodispersal,’ ‘secular migration’, ‘diffusion’ and ‘jump dispersal’. At the same time, variation in the dispersal behaviors of animals as ‘migration’ and ‘immigration’ were observed in which, the duration of species were much longer by ‘immigration’ between the Late Pliocene and Cromerian, however, after the establishment of the 100 kyr climate cyclicity, the ‘migration’ behavior of herbivores were the dominant pattern which reveal short term duration and repeated back and forward movements of the species into the continent.Show less
The main subject of this thesis is the research of traditional pottery workshops in present-day Egypt. Pottery workshops producing pottery in a traditional way are disappearing due to several...Show moreThe main subject of this thesis is the research of traditional pottery workshops in present-day Egypt. Pottery workshops producing pottery in a traditional way are disappearing due to several factors discussed in this thesis. The author decided to study a selection of workshops in Egypt, covering a large part of the Nile Valley: in the Fustat area in Cairo, in the Fayum, at Deir Mawas, and in the Qena-Ballas area. The research is intended to document one of the aspects of the heritage of Egypt on the one hand. On the other hand, the description of the workshops also serves ethnoarchaeological research. By creating a general view of the workshops, the information gathered with the descriptions, can be used to interpret archaeological remains of pottery workshops. As a framework to the description of the workshops a chapter is devoted to the production technologies of pottery, the so-called chaîne d’opératoire, to understand the activities usually occurring in a workshop. After that, the practice of studying pottery is discussed with special focus on ethnoarchaeological research as one of the possible study methods. The description of the workshops covers the largest part of this thesis. Every area is described in a separate chapter and per workshop the production technologies and the spatial distribution of the activities within the workshop are described. The layout and architecture of the workshops are treated as well. After that, one chapter is concerned with the comparison of the workshops in order to create a general view of the workshops and the activities therein. From this general discussion it becomes clear that the activities are conducted in the most convenient location in or outside the workshop. Also, certain features and activities appear to have a fixed location within a workshop, while others are not allocated in a specific area. The use of this general view of workshops in present-day Egypt to interpret archaeological remains is tested in a case study of site O45.1 in el-Amarna. The remains in this area have been identified as pottery workshops and will be compared to the general plan of the workshops created in this thesis. As the archaeological remains appeared to be scarce, it proved to be difficult to interpret the architecture and layout of the workshops and the activities conducted in the workshops as well as their distribution. The general description of the present-day workshops can then be used to fill in the gaps of the remains of the past as will become clear after the evaluation. Therefore, in the opinion of the author, the description of the workshops is necessary to document the heritage of Egypt as well as to aid archaeologists in interpreting the subject of their research.Show less
De transformatie van tempel naar kerk, ook wel tempel conversie genoemd, is een interessant verschijnsel dat zich vooral heeft geuit tussen de derde en de zesde eeuw. In deze periode incorporeren...Show moreDe transformatie van tempel naar kerk, ook wel tempel conversie genoemd, is een interessant verschijnsel dat zich vooral heeft geuit tussen de derde en de zesde eeuw. In deze periode incorporeren christelijke groeperingen (vaak leegstaande) tempels, en gebruiken het als plek voor de uitvoering van hun eigen religieuze praktijken. Egypte, dat een heel lange periode van complexe beschaving kent, bergt talloze tempels en kent een belangrijke periode van christelijke cultuur. Daarom is Egypte belangrijk in het onderzoek naar de verspreiding van het christendom en beschikt over veel materiaal dat de transformatie van tempel naar kerk kan toelichten. Friedrich Deichmann heeft als pionier een catalogus opgesteld met tempels die christelijke resten vertonen (inscripties etc.), verspreid over het gehele Romeinse Oosten. Door deze te vergelijken met teksten van antieke schrijvers, interpreteert hij de christelijke aanwezigheid in tempels als een overheersing van het heidendom. In de decennia na Deichmann is er veel onderzoek gedaan naar de vroegchristelijke gemeenschap. Echter, deze onderzoeken betreffen vaak alleen de gemeenschap en niet de archeologische resten die ze hebben achter gelaten. Afgezien van een aantal publicaties uit de afgelopen 15 jaar, is Deichmann de enige die het fenomeen tempel-conversie en de beweegredenen achter deze kwestie op heeft genomen in zijn onderzoek. De bronnen die in dit onderzoek gebruikt worden betreffen archeologische en geschreven bronnen. Het zwaartepunt ligt op de geschreven bronnen, omdat deze categorie omvangrijker is dan de archeologische bronnen welke zelfs als ‘schaars’ worden aangeduid. De geschreven bronnen vormen echter geen goede basis voor het onderzoek, omdat deze gekleurd zijn door de mening van de auteur. Verder zijn deze bronnen vaak niet contemporain en (meerdere malen) gekopieerd. Ook zijn, en dat geldt voor beide categorieën bronnen, de bronnen multiinterpretabel. Dit bemoeilijkt het onderzoek en daarom is het lastig om, met behulp van de beschikbare bronnen, tot een weloverwogen conclusie te komen. Ook Deichmann’s interpretatie en conclusie brengen problemen met zich mee. Ten eerste, doordat Deichmann het zwaartepunt van zijn argumentatie legt op de antieke bronnen, baseert hij zich eigenlijk op een heel gekleurd beeld, namelijk het beeld wat de antieke schrijver (in zijn geval Eusebius van Caesarea) wil schetsen. Ten tweede, Deichmann’s argumentatie is op een dusdanige manier geconstrueerd dat er een cirkelredenering ontstaat. Ten derde, zijn theorie suggereert een generalisatie: dat de conversie van tempels overal in het Romeinse Rijk op dezelfde manier wordt uitgevoerd. Op deze manier worden dus meerdere manieren van conversie uitgesloten, en het debat over de relaties tussen heidenen en christenen in een bepaald hoekje gedrukt. Het is daarom nodig om een andere (theoretische) insteek te nemen in het onderzoek. Het antwoord ligt in de sociale wetenschap: Social Memory, als een concept wat in eerste instantie gebruikt wordt om contemporaine gemeenschappen te interpreteren. Doordat Social Memory breed ingezet wordt (in de verschillende takken van de sociale wetenschap), biedt het brede perspectieven voor interpretatie. Social memory bespreekt het proces van herinneren en vergeten binnen het collectieve geheugen van een gemeenschap, en concentreert zich op (belangrijke) historische gebeurtenissen in het (dagelijks) leven van de mensen. Religie is ook een belangrijke vorm van social memory, omdat het een belangrijke factor in het dagelijks leven van de mensen is. De tempel is het meest belangrijkste instituut betreffende de religie. Doordat social memory de tempel en zijn uiterlijke vorm bespreken, is het mogelijk om ‘from the bottom up’-view te creëren. De tempel (en de archeologische bronnen) worden hiermee als onderwerp behandeld, en niet als lijdend bewijs. Omdat de bronnen multi-interpretabel zijn, is het nog steeds lastig om een compleet beeld te vormen betreffende de conversie van tempels, en de relaties tussen heidenen en christenen. De bronnen confirmeren beide benaderingen, en daarom biedt social memory (als theoretisch) concept nog geen uitkomst in het onderzoek naar de conversie van tempels. Het is daarom nodig om verder te kijken dan alleen de tempels, bijvoorbeeld naar de context en de gemeenschap. Omdat de christenen een rustige gemeenschap leken te zijn die niet te onderscheiden was van een normale ‘heiden’ (als beschreven in de oude bronnen), lijkt het vrij lastig om aan te nemen dat er een soort collectieve haat bestond tussen heidenen en christenen. Er kunnen verscheidene redenen genoemd worden die dit beeld versterken, zoals begrafenissen op de zelfde plekken en gezamenlijke liturgische en kunstzinnige aspecten. Deze feiten weerleggen de theorie dat de christenen en heidenen op vijandige voet leefden enigszins, maar verklaren nog steeds niet de redenen betreffende de conversie van tempels naar christelijke kerken, hoe deze conversie in zijn werk ging, en waarom. Om hier achter te komen zou elke tempel (in Egypte) op zich zelf bestudeerd moeten worden, om te kijken wat er is precies gebeurd is. Op deze manier kan er een driedimensionaal model gecreëerd worden, dat beide de conversie van tempels bespreekt, als de (veranderende) relatie tussen heidenen en christenen.Show less
Research master thesis | Archaeology (research) (MA/MSc)
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Isotopic analysis has been revealed highly applicable to the reconstruction of past dietary behaviour. In the line of this expansion of the archaeological methodology however, it might be easily...Show moreIsotopic analysis has been revealed highly applicable to the reconstruction of past dietary behaviour. In the line of this expansion of the archaeological methodology however, it might be easily forgotten that scientific methods needs exhaustive background studies to substantiate the use of the method. There is no doubt that isotopic analysis can say something about the dietary input, however when applied to the past it is important to investigate changes in climate, physiology and behaviour that could have altered the isotopic signal. The aim of this research is thus to establish whether any significant variations in the background isotopic signal occurred at the end of the Pleistocene and the beginning of the Holocene. This is attempted by the use of an extensive database of isotopic measurements on fauna and plant organic matter processed through temporal, spatial and biome specific analyses. The results obtained did indeed indicate major variations over time and space. In the temporal analysis the results obtained supports previous published chronologies to some extent, but differs in key aspects since it fails to support the δ15N-depletion observed elsewhere (Hedges et al. 2004; Richards and Hedges 2003; Steven and Hedges 2004). The temporal analysis additionally adds to the current knowledge of temporal variation by observing a pronounced δ15N-depletion between 37.000 and 35.000 BP, possibly linked to the Heinrich event 4. On a spatial scale the latitude-longitude analysis showed that prior to the LGM the δ13C-increases with increasing northern latitudes, this is contrary to the observations made for the LGM/LGT and the Holocene. The third analysis attempted to reconstruct LGM, LGT and Holocene biomes and correlate the isotopic signals in the plant organic matter to these biomes. These enquiries lead to the observation that during the LGM the most northern biome was more depleted than the in the south, and during the LGT the biomes show inconsistent variation that may be the result of localised reactions to the deglaciation. This exercise showed that major differences occur between the biomes and that generally wooded areas have lower δ13C-signals and that the signal is generally lower in the Holocene biomes compared to the LGM and LGT. The implications of this research to paleo-isotopic reconstructions are significant. The exhaustive collection of variation factors can be used as guidelines when making interpretations on isotopic measurements obtained from archaeological assemblages. The extension of the chronology to 45.000 BP moreover is a novel addition to the discussions on temporal variation in current research. The result of this research indicates the necessity of a methodological change in the practical field of archaeology where attention is often placed on site based reconstructions using the hominin fossils as the representative of the highest trophic link, however as proved here it is just as important, if not more, to contextualise these fossils by sampling exhaustively all along the trophic chain from different regions in order to make reliable paleo-dietary reconstructions.Show less
Egyptian seafaring in the second millennium BCE is examined in its social and economic aspects simultaneously, using an integrated approach relying on archaeological, iconographic, textual, and...Show moreEgyptian seafaring in the second millennium BCE is examined in its social and economic aspects simultaneously, using an integrated approach relying on archaeological, iconographic, textual, and ethnographic evidence. Geography and technology are considered, along with status, the Egyptian world view, and the regional power structure. Particular attention is given to trade and exchange and the role of institutions and individuals in society and the economy. Social organisation in the dangerous conditions of seafaring is essential to the discussion, as are the insights provided by the evidence into life at sea. Seafaring is shown to have depended upon hierarchical order and the cooperation of others. The high point of second millennium seafaring is characterised, together with the role of seafaring in the decline of the Bronze Age palace system. It is shown that travel and trade, along with subsistence, military, and diplomatic activities, ultimately transformed social, political, and economic power relationships in Egypt and the region.Show less
This research discusses the analysis of the stable isotopes 13C and 15N which were extracted from faunal bone material, dating from the seventh and early sixth millennium BC (the Late Neolithic)...Show moreThis research discusses the analysis of the stable isotopes 13C and 15N which were extracted from faunal bone material, dating from the seventh and early sixth millennium BC (the Late Neolithic) from Tell Sabi Abyad, Syria. The aim of this stable isotope analysis was to learn more about domestication of the animals and their diet, but also to see if there is a connection between the observed cultural change which is supposed to be related to a climate signal (the 8.2 ka event) and the zoological record. To perform this analysis, a broad sample of faunal bone material was collected and processed at Rijksuniversiteit Groningen (RUG) in the Centre for Isotope Research (CIO). The material appeared to be very fragile and not all samples contained enough collagen to provide reliable data. After a quality control, 35 samples remained as the final selection. Due to the reduction of the sample, it appeared to be impossible to draw any conclusions on the domestication of cattle. The 13C values of the successful samples suggest that there was a difference between the diet of wild herbivores (Gazelle), which seem to have been feeding almost exclusively on C3 plants and domesticated herbivores (caprines: Ovis and Capra) which show signals of a diet based on both C3 and C4 plants. The flocks were most likely herded over and extensive territory. The 15N values seem do indicate arid conditions in the area of Tell Sabi Abyad and possibly the practice of manuring. A significant change within the diet of the caprine group seem to have occurred exactly around the shift of the two Sequences of the settlement, which coincide with the assumed climate change of the 8.2 ka event. While the carbon and nitrogen values of early caprines indicate a broad diet and wide-ranged herding practices, the late caprines seem to point towards a diet consisting of mainly C3 plants and there is reason to believe that the flocks were kept closer to the settlement.Show less
Jaina figurines are ceramic statuettes of approximately 25-30cm high, the majority of which is found on Jaina Island, near the coastline of Campeche, Mexico. They are produced between 500-900AD and...Show moreJaina figurines are ceramic statuettes of approximately 25-30cm high, the majority of which is found on Jaina Island, near the coastline of Campeche, Mexico. They are produced between 500-900AD and belong to the Classic/(Late)-Classic period of Maya civilization. The far majority of the statuettes is found in a burial context. Because of the favourable preservation conditions in the burial, the colours (red, white, Maya blue, and yellow) are still clearly visible. This study focuses on the social identities visible in the Jaina figurines. Which information can be derived from the statuettes concerning the social identities that existed in the (Late)-Classic Maya society? For this study 28 Jaina figurines are examined. They are discussed on several focal points to identify the portrayed social identity: colour, clothing, jewellery, position of the body, headdress, face, gender, and emotion. A model by Houston is used for the latter part, emotion can provide information about the social status of the depicted individual. Jaina figurines of this corpus display social identities that were present in (Late)-Classic Maya court life, including supernaturals. In Maya worldview, gods were like any other social identity part of society. Jaina figurines provide insights in the gender division of labour that existed in Maya society as known from that period from other sources. Because of the natural attitude of the depicted individuals, Jaina figurines form a unique 3D source for a study on (Late)-Classic Maya court life. This study has several limitations, the sample is limited and no research was performed on Jaina Island itself. A wider research containing more access to more statuettes and an investigation of its context could answer many new questions risen in this thesis. This study is a good picture of the social identities that occurred in (Late)-Classic Maya court. It shows the potential of information about Maya court life that can be derived from studying Jaina figurines.Show less
Capacity development is a widely used system in international development. As the management of maritime and underwater cultural heritage is a relatively new discipline, so is the use of capacity...Show moreCapacity development is a widely used system in international development. As the management of maritime and underwater cultural heritage is a relatively new discipline, so is the use of capacity development there. One of the most widely used systems for developing capacity in this specialised field of cultural heritage has been created by the Nautical Archaeological Society (NAS). Unfortunately this system, together with most other capacity development projects, does not include a standard measuring method to track results. The aim of this thesis therefore is twofold: first to create a method for measuring the results of NAS based capacity development projects on the management of maritime and underwater cultural heritage, secondly to measure the results of the participants in the development of their capacity. To measure both results, two case studies are presented: one from Sri Lanka and one from South Africa. As no data on the personal development from Sri Lanka could be obtained, the results of this part of the research are based on just the South African case. For measuring the results on the management of maritime and underwater cultural heritage, the 2001 UNESCO convention on the protection of underwater cultural heritage has been transformed into a check list. It the management of this heritage complies more with the 2001 convention, it is regarded as being better. The check list provides an easy tool to clarify which elements have to be measured, in order to measure progress. The conclusion of the first part of the research is that the management of maritime and underwater cultural heritage has seemed to be improved as a result of the NAS courses held on Robben Island and Sri Lanka. But as there have been only two, fairly recent, case studies used, more research is needed to formulate definite conclusions for the system used by the NAS. As there were too few respondents from the questionnaires, no conclusions can be drawn on the role of the NAS course on the development of capacity of the participants. There are however indications that the NAS course did improve the capacities of the participants, from experienced maritime archaeologists to divers with no universal degree at all. Research on participants of other courses would therefore be highly recommended. Also more research is needed to find out if the Western based methods of the NAS are the best answer to the needs of non European countries.Show less
Research master thesis | Archaeology (research) (MA/MSc)
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In this study, published intensive field surveys from different geographies on the Italian peninsula have been revisited with the aim of developing a better understanding of regional differences in...Show moreIn this study, published intensive field surveys from different geographies on the Italian peninsula have been revisited with the aim of developing a better understanding of regional differences in demography, settlement pattern, landuse and how Roman society could have functioned. The field surveys/regions that have been subject to in-depth enquiry are Cisalpine Gaul, the Potenza Valley, the suburbium of Rome, the Pontine region and the Biferno Valley. The focus has been on the Late Republican to Early Imperial period. Models and interpretive concepts have been assessed that originate from archaeology, social geography and ethnography using archaeological evidence. The following seven biases hinder the interpretation and comparison of field survey information; (1) an incompletely identified nucleated settlement pattern; (2) questions on the size and urban make up of civic centres; (3) the precise size and location of field walked transects; (4) the reported sample/transect size versus actual field walked area; (5) the use of site recovery multipliers; (6) site typology and site population and (7) the integration of metadata from different surveys. The establishment and comparison of the demographic dimension have been shown to be challenging and problematic. The base case would be the inner suburbium of Rome, which was believed to have been the most densely populated region of Roman Italy. A bivariate statistical analysis for the suburbium of Rome suggests that the settlement patterns of the main centres are structured by landscape and have Archaic antecedents. Not all field surveys have been conducted at the same survey intensities and a ranking has been suggested for each region. High survey intensities can be argued for the Potenza Valley and the Pontine region and lower survey intensities for the inner and outer suburbium. The underlying rationale for obtaining a realistic multiplier, per site-type, landscape or region, including the separation between statistical and archaeological inference has not been sufficiently studied by archaeologists. The high-level view on demography, settlement pattern and hierarchy considers the majority of the population, in the range of 75-90%, living in the countryside. Moderately- sized civic centres of 12-30 ha in size were spaced at regular intervals, depending on landscape, facilitating a day-return trip, essential for the marketing needs of the people living in the countryside. Vici filled the servicing gaps in those regions with exceptional non-marketable radii. The size of the hinterland of the civic centres, excluding Cisalpine Gaul and the Biferno Valley, was in the 150-225 km2 range. A working hypothesis on the function of the civic centres would consider them as service centres. A banding-servicing view has been envisioned for the towns and market centres that could reflect different levels of servicing for local, sub-regional and regional centres. The contrast between Greek and Roman urbanisation ratios offers very fruitful insights for future research in the functioning of these two civilisations.Show less
West-Frisia is an archeologically rich area of prehistoric remains, that are excellently preserved in the calcareous soil. However, not much is known from this interesting period, although many...Show moreWest-Frisia is an archeologically rich area of prehistoric remains, that are excellently preserved in the calcareous soil. However, not much is known from this interesting period, although many investigations have been carried out in the last several decades. This is mainly the case for the Bronze Age period. Most of these investigations are not elaborated in papers or simply not published at all. The continuous agricultural purposes in the area are a direct threat to the preservation of our past and important information is therefore about to be lost. Yet, we do know that the area became inhabitable around 3000 BC (Van Heeringen and Theunissen 2001; De Mulder and Bosch 1982) and that it did not take long before the first inhabitants settled down. The earliest occupation traces are known from Zandwerven, generally dated around 2600 BC (Hallewas and De Mulder 1987, 170; Hogestijn and Woltering 1990, 155). There exists a general occupation model of West-Frisia. It stresses that as a result of extreme wettening the area became uninhabitable at the end of the Late Neolithic and people were therefore forced to move elsewhere. At the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age, when the area offered excellent circumstances for occupation again, West-Frisia became colonized (Brandt 1980; Brandt 1988; Fokkens 2005b; IJzereef and Van Regteren Altena 1991; Van Wijngaarden-Bakker and Brinkkemper 2005; Woltering 1985; Woltering and Sarfatij 1976). The area remained inhabited until the end of the Late Bronze Age, when wettening circumstances eventually made the area uninhabitable again (IJzereef and Van Regteren Altena 1991). However, indications of Early Bronze Age occupation are known (Van Beek and Hamburg 2002; De Boer and Molenaar 2006; Hallewas and De Mulder 1987). Therefore it seems unlikely to hold on to the outdated occupation models. Chance finds like for instance Barbed Wire sherds are known as well, but these finds seem to become generally ignored. The area of West-Frisia is thus likely to have been continuously inhabited from the Late Neolithic until the Late Bronze Age onwards. Geologically the area was inhabitable during the Early Bronze Age. The fact that not much artefacts or house plans of that particular period (represented as the Barbed Wire Culture) are known, is a similar problem concerning all regions in the Netherlands (Arnoldussen and Fokkens 2008; Fokkens 2005b; Fokkens 2008). The habitation history of West-Frisia is clearly a little more complicated than is previously thought and it is time for new investigations and assumptions about this interesting period and area. The assumed colonization of West-Frisia at the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age is questionable. Indications for Early Bronze Age occupation are inevitable and the arguments that support the colonization theory are no longer up to date. The Hoogkarspel-oud ceramics which date to the Middle Bronze Age are generally seen to originate from the area of Het Gooi because it bears resemblances to the Hilversum-Draken-Laren ceramic sequence (Van Beek and Hamburg 2002; Brandt 1980; Brandt 1988). But in fact the Hoogkarspel ceramics bears resemblances to all Early Bronze Age ceramics in the Netherlands. Only the variations in shape and decoration are much more elaborated compared to other ceramic assemblages at the time of the Late Bronze Age (Butler and Fokkens 2005, 377). Moreover, the Hoogkarspel ceramic assemblage misses the characteristic horseshoe-shaped ears and handles of the Hilversum-Draken-Laren ceramics (Butler and Fokkens 2005, 375-376). As is described above, the lack of Early Bronze Age indications are not restricted to West-Frisia. This problem accounts for the whole Netherlands (Arnoldussen and Fokkens 2008; Fokkens 2005b; Fokkens 2008). The geological processes that took place in West-Frisia from the Late Neolithic period on, are likely to be responsible for the erosion of Early Bronze Age traces (Lohof and Vaars 2005, 14; Woltering 1985, 19). The pattern of gully systems changed over time (De Boer and Molenaar 2006; Van Heeringen and Theunissen 2001; Mol 2002; De Mulder and Bosch 1982; Woltering 1985), forcing inhabitants to move along with the system. As a result, habitation was present at different areas each time the pattern of gullies and creeks had changed. This is reflected in the eastwards movement of habitation during the Middle Bronze Age. It is therefore likely that colonization never happened. The inhabitants of Middle Bronze Age eastern West-Frisia are likely to be the descendants of the Early Bronze Age inhabitants in western West-Frisia. Hence, West-Frisia was never abandoned completely. Most likely the area was continuously inhabited from the Late Neolithic period until, at least, the Late Bronze Age.Show less
This research relates about the “woman at the window” in the Near Eastern art. The “woman at the window” is a notorious iconographic theme which depicts a woman looking frontally out of a window....Show moreThis research relates about the “woman at the window” in the Near Eastern art. The “woman at the window” is a notorious iconographic theme which depicts a woman looking frontally out of a window. This motif is best known from the carved ivory panels, mainly found in the Neo-Assyrian centres, dated to the second millennium B.C., but this theme also occurs in various other contexts and regions. This essay investigates the iconography of this “woman at the window” as she is depicted on various objects which functioned in diverse contexts and time periods. The main goals of this research are to sketch the variations in the iconography of the “woman at the window”, the geographical distribution of these images, the meaning of her imagery and the origins of this motif. The main focal point of this thesis is to investigate how and why the “woman at the window” iconography changed over time in various geographical regions.Show less
Though research on small mammals may seem of no relevance to archaeology, it has already proven itself useful with the Mimomys/Arvicola boundary. This marker in time is important when dating sites...Show moreThough research on small mammals may seem of no relevance to archaeology, it has already proven itself useful with the Mimomys/Arvicola boundary. This marker in time is important when dating sites where humans were once present. The aim of this research was to investigate whether the genera Apodemus and Micromys could be a similar marker in time during the Pleistocene in Northwestern Europe and could contribute to a reconstruction of the climate and environment. Furthermore, this thesis sheds a light on the debate on the age of Neumark- Nord I. To do this, the Apodemus and Micromys molars from four different episodes (Early, Middle and Late Pleistocene) were studied; Tegelen-Maalbeek, Miesenheim I, Sesselfelsgrotte and Miesenheim II. Tegelen-Maalbeek dates to the Early Pleistocene (Tiglian), Miesenheim I to the Middle Pleistocene (the end of the Cromerian), Sesselfelsgrotte to the Late Pleistocene Oerel-Glinde interstadial and Miesenheim II to the Allerød interstadial. The molars from the sites were separated per species so the evolution of every species could be studied. The species that is special interest is Apodemus maastrichtiensis, which does not occur after the Eemian. The species was not yet present in Tegelen-Maalbeek, though present during the Cromerian. All other species did not show convincing differences over time or a limited occurrence, making them useless as a time marker. Nevertheless they can contribute to the reconstruction of the landscape and climate. Apodemus needs high vegetation, whereas Micromys needs a close vicinity to water. Both occur in temperate climates. The species Apodemus maastrichtiensis was used as a time marker to attribute the Palaeolithic site Neumark-Nord I to the Saalian by Heinrich (2010). It is clearly distinguishable from larger Apodemus species at the site. However Neumark-Nord I probably was an Eemian site, because of its stratigraphical position. This implies that Apodemus maastrichtiensis was present during the Eemian and no longer can be used as a stratigraphical marker for the Saalian. Altogether, Apodemus maastrichtiensis can be considered a marker in time, since it has not yet been discovered after the Eemian. The genus Micromys and the other species from the genus Apodemus are not suitable as time markers; however they can contribute to climate and landscape reconstruction. This means that they can tell archaeologists a lot about the environment humans lived in, making small mammals of great relevance.Show less
Dating archaeological sites in the Quaternary period remains difficult despite the relatively recent developed physical dating methods such as 14C, palaeomagnetism, geochronometric dating such as...Show moreDating archaeological sites in the Quaternary period remains difficult despite the relatively recent developed physical dating methods such as 14C, palaeomagnetism, geochronometric dating such as thermoluminescence (TL), optical stimulated luminescence (OSL) Uranium (U)-series methods, Potassium/Argon (K/Ar) and Argon/Argon (Ar/Ar). Biostratigraphy is also an often used and established method to relatively date archaeological sites in the Quarternary period. Voles in particular can contribute valuable information. In order to develop a higher resolution in the use of voles as biostratigraphical markers, it is important to be able to use as much lineages as possible. This is also important because some vole lineages cover short periods of time or are not abundant enough in sites. The genus Clethrionomys, which is mostly well represented in the fossil record, is investigated for this purpose. In this thesis the first lower and upper molars are investigated using multiple techniques or methods such as height measurements of the enamel free zone, morphotype analysis and SDQ measurements. The results of this investigation show that Clethrionomys can be used as a biostratigraphical marker, a rough chronological indication can be made.The Early, Middle and Late Pleistocene/Early Holocene periods can be distinguished based upon the first lower molar. The earliest appearance of C. rufocanus in Europe as a biostratigraphical marker can be further investigated. This species only appears in the Middle Pleistocene in this investigation, and is also observed for the first time in Boxgrove, England in this period.Show less
